In this simulator-based study, we aimed to quantify performance differences between joystick steering systems using first-order and second-order control, which are used in underground coal mining shuttle cars. In addition, we conducted an exploratory analysis of how users of the more difficult, second-order system changed their behavior over time.

Evidence from the visuomotor control literature suggests that higher-order control devices are not intuitive, which could pose a significant risk to underground mine personnel, equipment, and infrastructure.

Thirty-six naive participants were randomly assigned to first- and second-order conditions and completed three experimental trials comprising sequences of 90° turns in a virtual underground mine environment, with velocity held constant at 9 km/h^–1. Performance measures were lateral deviation, steering angle variability, high-frequency steering content, joystick activity, and cumulative time in collision with the virtual mine wall.

The second-order control group exhibited significantly poorer performance for all outcome measures. In addition, a series of correlation analyses revealed that changes in strategy were evident in the second-order group but not the first-order group.

Results were consistent with previous literature indicating poorer performance with higher-order control devices and caution against the adoption of the second-order joystick system for underground shuttle cars.

Low-cost, portable simulation platforms may provide an effective basis for operator training and recruitment.