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--- - - Social Development, Volume 27, Issue 4, Page 681-682, November 2018.

--- - |2 Abstract Generally, research on children's anger and prosocial outcomes has been inconsistent, perhaps because researchers have overlooked nuances in children's anger, such as whether the emotion is situational versus dispositional or is in response to blocked goals versus violations of moral principles (e.g., unfairness). Additionally, mixed findings may be due to potential moderators such as shyness. In this study, we investigated the unique relations of children's (n = 192, 54.7% boys; Mage = 41.75 months) dispositional and situational anger in response to unfairness at 42 months old to their prosocial behavior toward strangers a year later. Further, we examined whether children's shyness moderated the relations. Longitudinal models controlling for stability of the constructs showed that dispositional anger was unrelated to prosocial behavior whereas situational anger positively predicted later prosocial behavior. Further, children's shyness moderated the relation between situational anger (but not dispositional anger) and prosocial behavior. For shy children, prosocial behavior toward strangers was low, regardless of anger; for those who were low or average in shyness, situational anger positively predicted prosocial behavior. The findings suggest that when children are not too shy to approach strangers, anger in response to unfairness may be an important precursor for later other‐oriented moral tendencies. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved. - Social Development, Volume 0, Issue ja, -Not available-.

--- - |2 Abstract Our environment is constantly overloaded with information, although we cannot consciously process all the stimulation reaching our senses. Current theoretical models are focused on the cognitive and neural processes underlying conscious perception. However, cognitive processes do not occur in an isolated brain but in a complex interaction between the environment, the brain, and the organism. The brain‐body interaction has largely been neglected in the study of conscious perception. The aim of the present study was to explore if heart rate and skin conductance (SC) are modulated by the interaction between phasic alertness and conscious perception. We presented near‐threshold visual stimuli that could be preceded by an alerting tone on 50% of the trials. Behaviorally, phasic alerting improved perceptual sensitivity for detecting a near‐threshold stimulus (along with changes in response criterion). Following the alerting tone, a cardiac deceleration‐acceleration pattern was observed, which was more pronounced when the near‐threshold stimulus was consciously perceived in comparison with unconsciously perceived stimuli. SC results further showed some degree of subliminal processing of unseen stimuli. These results reveal that cardiac activity could be a marker of attention and consciousness interactions, emphasizing the need for taking into account brain‐body interactions for current theoretical models of consciousness. - Psychophysiology, EarlyView.

--- - |2 Abstract Prior to and during movement, oscillatory alpha activity gates cognitive resources toward motor areas of the cortex by inhibiting neuronal excitability in nonmotor areas. The present study examined the effect of manipulating target variability on this alpha gating phenomenon. Using a baseline‐test‐retention design, we measured EEG alpha power, performance accuracy, and task difficulty in 32 recreational golfers as they putted golf balls (20 per target) to one central target (baseline, retention) and four targets of different directions and extents (manipulation). For participants in the random group (n = 16), target location varied with each repetition in a random fashion, whereas for participants in the blocked group (n = 16), it was kept constant within blocks. Regional analyses revealed a focal pattern of lower central alpha and higher occipital and temporal alpha. This topography was specific to preparation for movement and was associated with performance: smallest performance errors were preceded by decreased central combined with increased occipital alpha. The random group performed worse than the blocked group and found the task more difficult. Importantly, left temporal alpha prior to movement onset was lower for the random group than the blocked group. No group differences were found at baseline or retention. Our study proved that alpha gating can be altered by manipulating intertrial variability and thereby demonstrated the utility of the alpha gating model. Our findings underscore the importance of inhibiting occipital and left temporal areas when performing movements and provide further evidence that alpha gating reflects neural efficiency during motor tasks. - Psychophysiology, EarlyView.

--- - |2 Summary Recent research has demonstrated chewing gum can enhance various cognitive processes associated with learning, but most studies have used cognitive functioning tasks (e.g., selective attention and working memory) as outcomes. Across two experiments, we investigated effects of chewing gum on self‐reports of alertness and test performance following study of realistic educational materials. In Experiment 1 (n = 40), adult participants who chewed gum while studying a 20‐min physiology lesson outperformed a nonchewing condition on subsequent terminology and comprehension tests, but did not report higher levels of postlesson alertness as hypothesised. In Experiment 2 (n = 39), adult participants who chewed gum while studying a 9‐min lesson on a mental mathematics strategy outperformed a nonchewing condition on a subsequent problem‐solving test, whereas also reporting higher levels of postlesson alertness. The results provide initial support for chewing gum while studying realistic educational materials across a range of topics and study durations. - Applied Cognitive Psychology, EarlyView.

--- - |2 Abstract Interventions including social scaffolding and metacognitive strategies have been used in educational settings to promote cognition. In addition, increasing evidence shows that computerized process‐based training enhances cognitive skills. However, no prior studies have examined the effect of combining these two training strategies. The goal of this study was to test the combined effect of metacognitive scaffolding and computer‐based training of executive attention in a sample of typically developing preschoolers at the cognitive and brain levels. Compared to children in the regular training protocol and an untrained active control group, children in the metacognitive group showed larger gains on intelligence and significant increases on an electrophysiological index associated with conflict processing. Moreover, changes in the conflict‐related brain activity predicted gains in intelligence in the metacognitive scaffolding group. These results suggest that metacognitive scaffolding boosts the influence of process‐based training on cognitive efficiency and brain plasticity related to executive attention. - Developmental Science, EarlyView.

--- - |2 Abstract The concept of linguistic indirectness is well established within the field of pragmatics, in which it has been observed that speakers express ideas directly and indirectly. We integrated analysis of linguistic directness and indirectness with examination of two established measures of parental emotion socialization through reminiscing: elaboration and emotion explanations. We examined unique associations of parents’ direct and indirect elaboration and emotion explanations with preschoolers’ emotion regulation and psychosocial adjustment. Participants were fifty‐five parent‐preschooler dyads (31 girls, 24 boys). Dyads reminisced about positive and negative events. Conversations were coded for parental elaboration, parental use of emotion explanations, and parental linguistic directness and indirectness. Children's emotion regulation was observed during standard tasks, and teachers reported on children's psychosocial adjustment. Multivariate regressions including direct elaboration and direct emotion explanations indicated that parents who engaged in more indirect elaboration when discussing positive events had children with worse emotion regulation. Parents who used indirect emotion explanations when discussing positive events had children with better psychosocial adjustment. Parents’ indirect speech during negative event discussions was not related to child outcomes. Results suggest differential functions for indirect elaboration and indirect emotion explanations in relation to children's social outcomes, and support the utility of examining linguistic indirectness. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved. - Social Development, Volume 0, Issue ja, -Not available-.

--- - |2+ Background Experiencing traumatic stress is common and may lead to posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in a number of children and adolescents. Research using advanced imaging techniques is beginning to elucidate some of the neurobiological correlates of the traumatic stress response in youth. Methods This paper summarizes the emerging network perspective of PTSD symptoms and reviews brain imaging research emphasizing structural and functional connectivity studies that employ magnetic resonance imaging techniques in pediatric samples. Results Differences in structural connections and distributed functional networks such as the salience, default mode, and central executive networks are associated with traumatic and severe early life stress. The role of development has been relatively underappreciated in extant studies though there is evidence that critical brain regions as well as the structural and functional networks implicated undergo significant change in childhood and these typical developmental differences may be affected by traumatic stress. Conclusions Future research will benefit from adopting a truly developmental approach that considers children's growth as a meaningful effect (rather than simply a covariate) interacting with traumatic stress to predict disruptions in the anatomical, functional, and connective aspects of brain systems thought to underlie the network of PTSD symptoms. Linking symptom networks with neurodevelopmental network models may be a promising avenue for future work. - Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, EarlyView.

--- - |2+ Background Genomic analysis of the child might offer new potential to illuminate human parenting. We examined whether offspring (G2) genome‐wide genotype variation (SNPs) is associated with their mother's (G1) emotional warmth and intolerance, indicating a gene–environment correlation. If this association is stronger than between G2′s genes and their emotional warmth and intolerance toward their own children, then this would indicate the presence of an evocative gene–environment correlation. To further understand how G1 mother's parenting has been evoked by genetically influenced characteristics of the child (G2), we examined whether child (G2) temperament partially accounted for the association between offspring genes and parental responses. Methods Participants were from the Young Finns Study. G1 mothers (N = 2,349; mean age 39 years) self‐reported the emotional warmth and intolerance toward G2 in 1980 when the participants were from 3 to 18 years old. G2 participants answered the same parenting scales in 2007/2012 (N = 1,378; mean age = 38 years in 2007; 59% female) when their children were on average 11 years old. Offspring temperament traits were self‐reported in 1992 (G2 age range 15–30 years). Estimation of the phenotypic variance explained by the SNPs of G2 was done by genome‐wide complex trait analysis with restricted maximum likelihood (GCTA‐GREML). Results Results showed that the SNPs of a child (G2) explained 22.6% of the phenotypic variance of maternal intolerance (G1; p‐value = .039). G2 temperament trait negative emotionality explained only 2.4% points of this association. G2 genes did not explain G1 emotional warmth or G2′s own emotional warmth and intolerance. However, further analyses of a combined measure of both G1 parenting scales found genetic effects. Parent or child gender did not moderate the observed associations. Conclusions Presented genome‐wide evidence is pointing to the important role a child plays in affecting and shaping his/her family environment, though the underlying mechanisms remain unclear. - Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, EarlyView.

--- - |2+ Background Children adopted from orphanages or other such institutions tend to display blunted reactivity to stressors – even years after arriving in their generally supportive and highly resourced postadoption homes. Puberty, a proposed sensitive period for environmental influences on stress‐mediating systems, may provide an opportunity for postinstitutionalized children to recalibrate stress response systems in accordance with their now more supportive living situations. Methods This cross‐sectional study examined the hypothalamic‐pituitary‐adrenocortical (HPA)‐axis reactivity of 280 children ages 7 through 14 years; 122 children were adopted from institutions in 14 countries between the ages of 6 months and 5 years, after spending an average of 95% of their lives in institutional care, and 158 children of similarly high socioeconomic status in their biological families served as the nonadopted comparison group. All of the children were assessed by nurses for Tanner stage and, on a different day, completed the Trier Social Stress Test for Children. Results Using a linear mixed‐effects model and seven measures of salivary cortisol, results indicated that early‐pubertal postinstitutionalized children showed blunted HPA axis reactivity compared to nonadopted children, but mid/late‐pubertal postinstitutionalized children displayed higher reactivity similar to the nonadopted comparison children. Conclusions This is the first evidence of possible pubertal recalibration of HPA axis reactivity to a psychosocial stressor in postinstitutionalized children, which provides a promising avenue for future research regarding the protective factors of the postadoption environment and subsequent physiological, behavioral, and psychopathological outcomes. - Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, EarlyView.

--- - |2+ Background Williams syndrome (WS) is a neurodevelopmental disorder that has been attributed to heterozygous deletions in chromosome 7q11.23 and exhibits a variety of physical, cognitive, and behavioral features. However, the genetic basis of this phenotypic variability is unclear. In this study, we identified genetic clues underlying these complex phenotypes. Methods Neurobehavioral function was assessed in WS patients and healthy controls. Total RNA was extracted from peripheral blood and subjected to microarray analysis, RNA‐sequencing, and qRT‐PCR. Weighted gene co‐expression network analysis was performed to identify specific alterations related to intermediate disease phenotypes. To functionally interpret each WS‐related module, gene ontology and disease‐related gene enrichment were examined. We also investigated the micro (mi)RNA expression profiles and miRNA co‐expression networks to better explain the regulation of the transcriptome in WS. Results Our analysis identified four significant co‐expression modules related to intermediate WS phenotypes. Notably, the three upregulated WS‐related modules were composed exclusively of genes located outside the 7q11.23 region. They were significantly enriched in genes related to B‐cell activation, RNA processing, and RNA transport. BCL11A, which is known for its association with speech disorders and intellectual disabilities, was identified as one of the hub genes in the top WS‐related module. Finally, these key upregulated mRNA co‐expression modules appear to be inversely correlated with a specific downregulated WS‐related miRNA co‐expression module. Conclusions Dysregulation of the mRNA/miRNA network involving genes outside of the 7q11.23 region is likely related to the complex phenotypes observed in WS patients. - Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, EarlyView.

--- - - Developmental Science, Volume 21, Issue 6, November 2018.

--- - - Developmental Science, Volume 21, Issue 6, November 2018.

--- - - Developmental Science, Volume 21, Issue 6, November 2018.

--- - |2 We present first‐grade, second‐grade, and third‐grade impacts for a first‐grade intervention targeting the conceptual and procedural bases that support arithmetic. At‐risk students (average age at pretest = 6.5) were randomly assigned to three conditions: a control group (n = 224) and two variants of the intervention (same conceptual instruction but different forms of practice: speeded [n = 211] vs. nonspeeded [n = 204]). Impacts on all first‐grade content outcomes were significant and positive, but no follow‐up impacts were significant. Many intervention children achieved average mathematics achievement at the end of third grade, and prior math and reading assessment performance predicted which students will require sustained intervention. Finally, projecting impacts 2 years later based on nonexperimental estimates of effects of first‐grade math skills overestimates long‐term intervention effects. - Child Development, EarlyView.

--- - |2 Abstract To date, several fMRI studies reveal activation in motor planning areas during musical auditory imagery. We addressed whether such activations may give rise to peripheral motor activity, termed subvocalization or covert singing, using surface electromyography. Sensors placed on extrinsic laryngeal muscles, facial muscles, and a control site on the bicep measured muscle activity during auditory imagery that preceded singing, as well as during the completion of a visual imagery task. Greater activation was found in laryngeal and lip muscles for auditory than for visual imagery tasks, whereas no differences across tasks were found for other sensors. Furthermore, less accurate singers exhibited greater laryngeal activity during auditory imagery than did more accurate singers. This suggests that subvocalization may be used as a strategy to facilitate auditory imagery, which appears to be degraded in inaccurate singers. Taken together, these results suggest that subvocalization may play a role in anticipatory auditory imagery, and possibly as a way of supplementing motor associations with auditory imagery. - Psychophysiology, EarlyView.

--- - |2 Abstract Metrics of heart period variability are widely used in the behavioral and biomedical sciences, although somewhat confusingly labeled as heart rate variability (HRV). Despite their wide use, HRV metrics are usually analyzed and interpreted without reference to prevailing levels of cardiac chronotropic state (i.e., mean heart rate or mean heart period). This isolated treatment of HRV metrics is nontrivial. All HRV metrics routinely used in the literature exhibit a known and positive relationship with the mean duration of the interval between two beats (heart period): as the heart period increases, so does its variability. This raises the question of whether HRV metrics should be “corrected” for the mean heart period (or its inverse, the heart rate). Here, we outline biological, quantitative, and interpretive issues engendered by this question. We provide arguments that HRV is neither uniformly nor simply a surrogate for heart period. We also identify knowledge gaps that remain to be satisfactorily addressed with respect to assumptions underlying existing HRV correction approaches. In doing so, we aim to stimulate further progress toward the rigorous use and disciplined interpretation of HRV. We close with provisional guidance on HRV reporting that acknowledges the complex interplay between the mean and variability of the heart period. - Psychophysiology, EarlyView.

--- - |2 Summary We examined the effect of distributed practice on the mathematical performance of third and seventh graders (N = 213) in school. Students first received an introduction to a mathematical topic, derived from their curriculum. Thereafter, they practiced in one of two conditions. In the massed condition, they worked on three practice sets in one day. In the distributed condition, they worked on one practice set per day for three consecutive days. Bayesian analyses of the performance in two follow‐up tests one and six weeks after the last practice set revealed a positive effect of distributed practice as compared to massed practice in Grade 7. In Grade 3, a positive effect of distributed practice was supported by the data only in the test one week after the last practice set. The results suggest that distributed practice is a powerful learning tool for both elementary and secondary school students in the classroom. - Applied Cognitive Psychology, Volume 0, Issue ja, -Not available-.

--- - |2 Summary We investigated whether seductive details (i.e., interesting but irrelevant adjuncts) are harmful to learning only when students (mistakenly) think that they are relevant. We therefore conducted a study in which participants (N = 86) learned either without seductive details (control condition) or with seductive details – in the latter case with or without being informed about the seductive details' irrelevance. In line with our hypotheses, only participants who were not informed about the irrelevance of seductive details revealed worse learning outcomes than those in the control condition, thereby revealing a seductive details effect. Extraneous cognitive load, but not perceived time‐pressure, mediated the negative effects of being uninformed about the irrelevance of seductive details on learning outcomes. Taken together, our results suggest that the perceived relevance of seductive details is a boundary condition of the seductive details effect. - Applied Cognitive Psychology, Volume 0, Issue ja, -Not available-.

--- - |2+ Background Cross‐sectional associations between anxiety disorders and eating disorders (EDs) have been well documented; however, limited research has examined whether symptoms of anxiety disorders are prospectively associated with EDs. Identifying these longitudinal associations can aid in discerning relationships among eating and anxiety disorders and point toward a mechanistic understanding of developmental psychopathology. This study investigated the prospective associations between parent‐reported anxiety in mid‐childhood (age 10) and child‐reported ED behaviors and disorders in adolescence (at ages 14 and 16 years) in a population‐based sample. Methods Participants were individuals enrolled in the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children (ALSPAC), a population‐based, prospective study of women and their children; 7,767 children whose parents provided data at age 10 were included in current analyses. An exploratory factor analysis identified latent anxiety factors at age 10, followed by a path analysis that evaluated associations between these factors and eating disorder symptoms and cognitions at age 14. Results Parent‐reported anxiety symptoms at age 10 yielded 5 factors: obsessive‐compulsive disorder (OCD) symptoms related to symmetry and checking (Factor 1); OCD symptoms associated with aversion to dirt and germs (Factor 2); physical anxiety symptoms (Factor 3); worries (Factor 4); and social phobia symptoms (Factor 5). Factors 3 and 4 showed the most consistent, positive associations with a range of ED symptoms at age 14. Factor 3 predicted diagnosis of bulimia nervosa by age 16 (OR = 1.11, p = .007), whereas Factor 4 predicted diagnoses of anorexia nervosa (OR = 1.10, p = .01) and disordered eating by age 16 (OR = 1.08, p = .001). Conclusions Results indicate that symptoms of generalized anxiety in middle childhood may predict adolescent‐onset ED symptoms and ED diagnoses. - Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, EarlyView.

--- - |2 Abstract Psychologists have long tried to understand why trajectories of socialization in individual parent–child dyads can be distinct, leading to adaptive or maladaptive developmental outcomes. In this article, we elucidate origins of those differences by examining the subtle yet enduring implications of early parent–child relationships in longitudinal studies of low‐ and high‐risk families, using correlational and experimental designs, and multiple measures. Those relationships are key for socialization because they can alter cascades from children's biologically based difficult temperament to parents' negative control to negative children's outcomes, as demonstrated by social‐learning theories. We suggest that those cascades unfold only in parent–child dyads whose early relationships lack positive mutuality and security. Such relationships set the tone for adversarial cascades. In contrast, early mutually positive, secure relationships initiate cooperative, effective socialization and defuse risks of negative cascades. Parents' and children's internal representations of each other may explain how such divergent sequelae unfold. - Child Development Perspectives, EarlyView.

--- - |2 In “Are we smart enough to know how smart animals are?” de Waal (2016) summarizes field studies and experiments that demonstrate a huge number of examples of complex behavior in many animal species. His avowed aim is to challenge the views of both lay people and scientists about the limits of intelligence of other species and to demonstrate much closer similarity in the achievements of other species to those of humans, thus undermining claims of human uniqueness. His general explanatory scheme is to infer human‐like cognitive processes in other species to explain complex behavior, at least when this is supported by other evolutionary considerations. This review suggests how behavior analysis might explain some of the phenomena outlined by de Waal, indicates where its explanatory system may need to expand and develop to encompass a wider range of behavior, and points to similarities as well as differences between the explanatory scheme used by de Waal and that of behavior analysis. - Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, EarlyView.

--- - |2 Abstract If people avoid alternatives they dislike, a negative evaluative bias emerges because errors of under‐evaluation are unlikely to be corrected. Prior work that analyzed this mechanism has shown that when the social environment exposes people to avoided alternatives (i.e., it makes them resample them), then evaluations can become systematically more positive. In this paper, we clarify the conditions under which this happens. By analyzing a simple learning model, we show that whether additional exposures induced by the social environment lead to more positive or more negative evaluations depends on how prior evaluations and the social environment interact in driving resampling. We apply these insights to the study of the effect of popularity on evaluations. We show theoretically that increased popularity leads to more positive evaluations when popularity mainly increases the chances of resampling for individuals with low current evaluations. Data on repeat stays at hotels are consistent with this condition: The popularity of a hotel mainly impacts the chances of a repeat stay for individuals with low satisfaction scores. Our results illustrate how a sampling approach can help to explain when and why people tend to like popular alternatives. They also shed new light on the polarization of attitudes across social groups. - Topics in Cognitive Science, EarlyView.

--- - |2 Summary The putative confession instruction (“[suspect] told me everything that happened and wants you to tell the truth”) during forensic interviews with children has been shown to increase the accuracy of children's statements, but it is unclear whether adult's perceptions are sensitive to this salutary effect. The present study examined how adults perceive children's true and false responses to the putative confession (PC) instruction. Participants (n = 299) watched videotaped interviews of children and rated the child's credibility and the truthfulness of his/her statements. When viewing children's responses to the PC instruction, true and false statements were rated as equally credible, and there was a decrease in accuracy for identifying false denials as lies. These findings suggest that participants viewed the PC instruction as truth‐inducing. Implications for the forensic use of the PC instruction are discussed. - Applied Cognitive Psychology, Volume 0, Issue ja, -Not available-.

--- - |2 Summary Network science is an emerging area of complexity science that uses mathematical techniques to study complex systems, and could represent a new way of quantifying and investigating the internal structure of domain‐specific knowledge as approximated by students' concept maps. Students enrolled in introductory psychology constructed concept maps to represent their understanding of a psychology chapter. Concept networks were constructed based on the concept maps generated by students. Network analysis revealed that the structure of concept networks differed across students (i.e., some networks were better connected than others), and network structure significantly predicted quiz scores, such that concept networks with larger average shortest path lengths (a network metric representing the average of the shortest paths between two nodes in a network) were associated with higher quiz scores, after controlling for network size. This paper illustrates how network science techniques can be used to quantify the conceptual structure of a learner's knowledge. - Applied Cognitive Psychology, Volume 0, Issue ja, -Not available-.

--- - |2+ Background Atypical sensory responsivity and sensory interests are now included in the DSM 5 diagnostic criteria for autism spectrum disorder (ASD) under the broad domain of restricted and repetitive behavior (RRB). However, relatively little is known about the emergence of sensory‐related features and their relation to conventionally defined RRB in the first years of life. Methods Prospective, longitudinal parent‐report data using the Sensory Experiences Questionnaire (SEQ) were collected for 331 high‐risk toddlers (74 of whom met diagnostic criteria for ASD at age 2) and 135 low‐risk controls. Longitudinal profiles for SEQ scores were compared between groups across ages 12–24 months. Associations between SEQ measures and measures of RRB subtypes (based on the Repetitive Behavior Scale, Revised) were also examined. Results Longitudinal profiles for all SEQ scores significantly differed between groups. SEQ scores were elevated for the ASD group from age 12 months, with differences becoming more pronounced across the 12–24 month interval. At both 12 and 24 months, most measures derived from the SEQ were significantly associated with all subtypes of RRB. Conclusions These findings suggest that differences in sensory responsivity may be evident in high‐risk infants later diagnosed with ASD in early toddlerhood, and that the magnitude of these differences increases over the second year of life. The high degree of association between SEQ scores and RRB supports the conceptual alignment of these features but also raises questions as to explanatory mechanisms. - Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, EarlyView.

--- - |2 Important advances in understanding traumatic stress reactions in children and young people have been made in recent years. The aim of this review was to synthesise selected recent research findings, with a focus on their relevance to clinical practice. We therefore address: findings on the epidemiology of trauma exposure and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD); recent changes to diagnostic classification; implications for screening and assessment of traumatic stress reactions; and treatment outcome studies including interventions for acute and chronic PTSD, dissemination of effective treatments into community settings, and early interventions. We conclude with recommendations for clinical practice and suggestions for future areas of research. - Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, EarlyView.

--- - |2 Abstract Children's gesture production precedes and predicts language development, but the pathways linking these domains are unclear. It is possible that gesture production assists in children's developing word comprehension, which in turn supports expressive vocabulary acquisition. The present study examines this mediation pathway in a population with variability in early communicative abilities – the younger siblings of children with ASD (High Risk infants; HR). Participants included 92 HR infants and 28 infants at low risk (LR) for ASD. A primary caregiver completed the MacArthur‐Bates Communicative Development Inventory (Fenson et al., 1993) at 12, 14, and 18 months, and HR infants received a diagnostic evaluation for ASD at 36 months. Word comprehension at 14 months mediated the relationship between 12‐month gesture and 18‐month word production in LR and HR infants (ab = .263; p < .01). For LR infants and HR infants with no diagnosis or language delay, gesture was strongly associated with word comprehension (as = .666; .646; .561; ps < .01). However, this relationship did not hold for infants later diagnosed with ASD (a = .073; p = .840). This finding adds to a growing literature suggesting that children with ASD learn language differently. Furthermore, this study provides an initial step towards testing the developmental pathways by which infants transition from early actions and gestures to expressive language. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved. - Developmental Science, Volume 0, Issue ja, -Not available-.

--- - |2 Abstract Inhibition is an important aspect of executive functioning (EF) that refers to a cognitive mechanism that blocks or suppresses irrelevant stimuli, memory, habitual responses, or automatized processes from interrupting the desired response. Researchers have found weak and inconsistent relations between inhibitory abilities and mathematics performance (Bull & Lee, 2014). Given anecdotal evidence of the effects of external distraction or intruding thoughts on the ability to stay on task, it is surprising that inhibitory abilities do not have a more prominent role. In this article, we argue that this lower‐than‐expected association is due to (a) age‐related changes in EF, (b) the sensitivity of inhibitory tasks commonly used in studies, (c) a mismatch in how susceptibility to interference and mathematical performance are measured, and (d) the choice of criterion measures, with some mathematical tasks imposing less inhibitory demands than others. - Child Development Perspectives, EarlyView.

--- - |2 Abstract Altruism is a central feature of human morality. Recent research sheds light on the development of altruism in early childhood. In this article, we propose a theoretical framework that systematizes research on how altruism develops from infancy to childhood. The framework includes four phases in the development of human altruism: (a) interest in social interactions, (b) preference for others’ goal completion, (c) concern with others’ well‐being, and (d) a normative stance toward altruistic actions. We point to needs for additional research, especially on developmental processes by which children develop from one phase to another, eventually leading children to acquire forms of altruism that play important roles in human societies. - Child Development Perspectives, EarlyView.

--- - |2 Summary Working memory capacity plays a major role in many applied contexts, and it is important to be able to accurately measure this construct. The current studies tested whether the modality of administration of the letter–number sequencing task affects performance on the task. The letter–number sequencing task is a working memory capacity measure included as part of the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale‐III and Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale‐IV test batteries. The task involves hearing a series of letters and digits, and then reporting back the stimuli with the letters in alphabetical order and digits in ascending numerical order. The task is traditionally administered orally, but recent studies have administered versions of the tasks visually by displaying stimuli on a computer screen. Results suggest that performance differences on the letter–number sequencing task may arise as a function of language background and task administration modality. - Applied Cognitive Psychology, EarlyView.

--- - |2 Summary Word problems embed a math equation within a short narrative. Due to their structure, both numerical and linguistic factors can contribute to problem difficulty. The present studies explored the role of irrelevant information in word problems, to determine whether its negative impact is due to numerical (foregrounding hypothesis) or linguistic (inconsistent‐operations hypothesis) interference. Across three experiments, participants solved multiplication and division word problems containing irrelevant numerical information, which was either associated or disassociated with the protagonist. Results demonstrated increased solution errors on division problems when irrelevant numbers were disassociated with the protagonist. When memory for numerical information was emphasized, disassociation was specifically impacted low‐working memory individuals. The effect of disassociation on division performance persisted even when irrelevant numbers, but not words, were removed from problems. These results suggest that, even in the presence of numerically interfering information, it is the language of word problems that often drive their difficulty. - Applied Cognitive Psychology, EarlyView.

--- - |2 Summary This paper presents a personal account of developments in research on online learning over the past 30 years. Research on how to design online instruction represents an example of applying the science of learning to education. It contributes to the science of learning (as exemplified by developments in cognitive load theory, the cognitive theory of multimedia learning, and incorporating metacognitive, motivational, and affective aspects of learning), the science of instruction (as exemplified by the continuing development of research‐based principles of instructional design), and the science of assessment (as exemplified by supplementing self‐report surveys and retention tests with multi‐level transfer tests, log file data during learning, and cognitive neuroscience measures of cognitive processing during learning). Some recurring themes are that learning is caused by instructional methods rather than instructional media, so research on should focus on features that are uniquely afforded by digital learning environments; practice should be grounded in rigorous and systematic research, including value‐added experiments aimed at pinpointing the active ingredients in online instruction; research in online learning should identify boundary conditions under which instructional techniques are most effective; and research in online learning should test and contribute to learning theory. - Applied Cognitive Psychology, Volume 0, Issue ja, -Not available-.

--- - |2 Summary One factor in reducing the likelihood of sports‐related brain injuries is the recognition of risks. However, using colloquial terms may deemphasize the severity of these risks. We hypothesized that using colloquial language to describe sports‐related brain injuries will lead to greater willingness to take on the risk. We conducted two experiments, varying the label describing an injury (getting your bell rung, concussion, or brain injury) and assessing willingness of current athletes, former athletes, and non‐athletes to accept this risk as part of sports participation. High‐school and college athletes were willing to expose themselves to a high probability of risk, compared to non‐athletes, when described colloquially. However, risk thresholds were low and indistinguishable across groups when using the term “brain injury.” Findings remained significant when controlling for knowledge, age, and sensation seeking. These differences indicate that the term “getting your bell rung” should not be used to describe a brain injury. - Applied Cognitive Psychology, Volume 0, Issue ja, -Not available-.

--- - |2 Educational neuroscience is an interdisciplinary research field that seeks to translate research findings on neural mechanisms of learning to educational practice and policy and to understand the effects of education on the brain. Neuroscience and education can interact directly, by virtue of considering the brain as a biological organ that needs to be in the optimal condition to learn (‘brain health’); or indirectly, as neuroscience shapes psychological theory and psychology influences education. In this article, we trace the origins of educational neuroscience, its main areas of research activity and the principal challenges it faces as a translational field. We consider how a pure psychology approach that ignores neuroscience is at risk of being misleading for educators. We address the major criticisms of the field comprising, respectively, a priori arguments against the relevance of neuroscience to education, reservations with the current practical operation of the field, and doubts about the viability of neuroscience methods for diagnosing disorders or predicting individual differences. We consider future prospects of the field and ethical issues it raises. Finally, we discuss the challenge of responding to the (welcome) desire of education policymakers to include neuroscience evidence in their policymaking, while ensuring recommendations do not exceed the limitations of current basic science. - Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, EarlyView.

--- - |2+ Background Mindfulness based interventions (MBIs) are an increasingly popular way of attempting to improve the behavioural, cognitive and mental health outcomes of children and adolescents, though there is a suggestion that enthusiasm has moved ahead of the evidence base. Most evaluations of MBIs are either uncontrolled or nonrandomized trials. This meta‐analysis aims to establish the efficacy of MBIs for children and adolescents in studies that have adopted a randomized, controlled trial (RCT) design. Methods A systematic literature search of RCTs of MBIs was conducted up to October 2017. Thirty‐three independent studies including 3,666 children and adolescents were included in random effects meta‐analyses with outcome measures categorized into cognitive, behavioural and emotional factors. Separate random effects meta‐analyses were completed for the seventeen studies (n = 1,762) that used an RCT design with an active control condition. Results Across all RCTs we found significant positive effects of MBIs, relative to controls, for the outcome categories of Mindfulness, Executive Functioning, Attention, Depression, Anxiety/Stress and Negative Behaviours, with small effect sizes (Cohen's d), ranging from .16 to .30. However, when considering only those RCTs with active control groups, significant benefits of an MBI were restricted to the outcomes of Mindfulness (d = .42), Depression (d = .47) and Anxiety/Stress (d = .18) only. Conclusions This meta‐analysis reinforces the efficacy of using MBIs for improving the mental health and wellbeing of youth as assessed using the gold standard RCT methodology. Future RCT evaluations should incorporate scaled‐up definitive trial designs to further evaluate the robustness of MBIs in youth, with an embedded focus on mechanisms of action. - Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, EarlyView.

--- - |2 ABSTRACT Research on the intersections of young children's emerging communication skills and emotion regulation has increased, following recognition of the link between these skills as they emerge in toddlerhood and the long‐term impact of these skills on academic success. However, little is known about how toddlers use gesture and emerging language for emotion regulation. The current study describes toddlers’ use of both words and gestures in naturally occurring distressing routines in childcare (diaper change, separation from parents). Seventeen toddlers between 11 and 28 months old were observed over the course of 3½ months in a childcare setting where symbolic gestures (“infant signs”) were used as part of daily routines. Results show that toddlers communicated more frequently using gestures than speech, and used a greater range of self‐regulatory strategies through gesture than through speech. Moreover, older, verbal toddlers continued to use gestures during heightened distress when they could not find their words. Findings suggest that toddlers use symbolic communication to implement complex and diverse emotion regulation strategies during distressing daily routines, and that gestures provide children with opportunities to employ more diverse emotion regulation strategies than does speech alone, which may ultimately enhance children's abilities to regulate their emotions. - Infant Mental Health Journal, EarlyView.

--- - |2+ Abstract The study examines the concurrent and longitudinal associations between ratings‐based measures (parents, secondary caregivers, and observers) and performance‐based measures of focused attention in toddlers aged 30 (n = 147), 36 (n = 127), and 42 months (n = 107). Parents and secondary caregivers rated focused attention behaviours using the Children's Behaviour Questionnaire and observers rated toddlers' focused attention during a series of laboratory tasks using the Leiter‐R Examiner Rating Scale. Toddlers' behaviours on three structured tasks (Token Sort, Toy Play, and Lock Box) were used to assess their performance‐based focused attention in a laboratory setting. Correlations show that parent ratings are not related to observer and teacher ratings or to the performance‐based measures at all ages tested. Second, based on confirmatory factor analyses, a single factor explains the common variance between indicators when the parent ratings are not included in the models. The single factor shows measurement invariance between ages 36 and 42 months based on factor structure, relations of indicators to the factor, and factor scale over time. Third, indicators of focused attention at age 30 months do not seem to measure a common, coherent factor. Interpretations of similarities and differences between ratings and performance‐based indicators of focused attention and the presence of a focused attention construct are discussed. Highlights The concurrent and longitudinal association between ratings and performance‐based attention was examined. Parent‐ratings, observer‐ratings, and performance‐based attention via structured tasks were used. Parent ratings of attention were not related to other ratings, or to the performance‐based measures at all ages; a single factor explains the common variance between indicators when the parent ratings are not included in the models; indicators of focused attention at age 30 months do not seem to measure a common, coherent factor. - Infant and Child Development, EarlyView.

--- - |2+ Abstract Low levels of inhibitory control (IC) are associated with multiple cognitive and socio‐emotional difficulties including externalizing behavioural problems and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). However, conclusions depend somewhat on the method of IC assessment. This investigation examined associations between child IC and behavioural problems and maternal depression and anxiety employing a family study design. Child IC was assessed using a parent rating scale, three independent observer ratings, two laboratory‐based temperament episodes, and an executive functioning task. Correlational results showed that parent‐rated IC was associated with all behavioural problems' scales, whereas observed IC was specifically associated with ADHD, aggressive, attention, and externalizing behavioural problems. Structural equation modelling analyses including child age and gender indicated that all IC variables significantly predicted externalizing and ADHD behavioural problems. The model accounted for overlapping variance across parent‐rated IC, child behavioural problems, and maternal mental health symptoms and showed that observed IC predicted externalizing and ADHD behavioural problems over and above these parent–rater effects. Results also showed that maternal depression and anxiety symptoms significantly predicted these behavioural problems even after controlling for the parent‐rater effects. These findings indicate that assessment methods are an important consideration when interpreting the results of early IC investigations. Highlights Do different measures of inhibitory control (IC) predict behaviour problems during preschool? SEM analyses indicated that observed IC predicted externalizing and ADHD behaviour problems over and above parent‐rater effects. Observations of IC show more specificity to externalizing and ADHD problems and are not susceptible to parent‐rater effects. - Infant and Child Development, EarlyView.

--- - |2+ Abstract To investigate whether bodies are useful cues in infants' category formations, 7‐month‐old infants were familiarized to images of humans or non‐human animals followed by test pairs comprising a familiar category image and a hybrid image with a novel category body. Infants familiarized to humans did not demonstrate a novelty preference for hybrid stimuli with non‐human animal bodies. Infants familiarized with non‐human animals demonstrated a novelty preference for hybrid stimuli with human bodies, suggesting that there is an asymmetry in infants' category formations of bodies. Compared with infants familiarized to non‐human animals, the infants familiarized to humans had a higher proportional fixation count to bodies during familiarization, but the lack of preference for novel category bodies at test suggests that 7‐month‐old infants' representations of the features of human bodies are likely still developing and they are more likely to form a summary‐based categorical representation of non‐human animals. Highlights This study tackles the question as to whether bodies are relevant cues for infants' category formations of humans and non‐human animals. Infants were familiarized with a series of humans or non‐human animals and were subsequently presented with test pairs, one of which contained a novel category body. Only 7‐month‐olds presented with animal images preferred novel category human bodies. Infants in both conditions had a higher proportional fixation count to bodies within the figures, yet infants familiarized with humans failed to demonstrate a preference for novel category bodies. Differing levels of familiarity with the categories could explain the asymmetry in infants' categorization of bodies of humans and animals. Infants' body representations are likely still developing at 7 months of age and after familiarization with human images, non‐human animal bodies do not appear sufficiently different for this age group. - Infant and Child Development, EarlyView.

--- - |2 Developing self‐restraint, or the inhibition of behavior in response to a prohibition, is an important process during toddlerhood. The objective of this study was to gain a better understanding of individual differences in the development of self‐restraint during toddlerhood by examining stable elements and growth of temperament (i.e., attentional control, behavioral inhibition, negative emotionality), general intelligence, and self‐restraint. Participants were 412 same‐sex twin pairs (approximately 90% European American) from predominately middle‐class households in Colorado. Data were collected at 14, 20, 24, and 36 months. Results indicated that higher behavioral inhibition, attentional control, and intelligence were independently associated with better self‐restraint, whereas higher negative emotionality was an independent predictor of lower self‐restraint. The associations between temperament and self‐restraint generally appeared to be stable from 14 to 36 months. - Child Development, EarlyView.

--- - |2 Deficits in reciprocal social behavior are a characterizing feature of autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Autism‐related variation in reciprocal social behavior (AVR) in the general population is continuously distributed and highly heritable—a function of additive genetic influences that overlap substantially with those which engender clinical autistic syndromes. This is the first long‐term prospective study of the stability of AVR from childhood through early adulthood, conducted via serial ratings using the Social Responsiveness Scale, in a cohort‐sequential study involving children with ASD, other psychiatric conditions, and their siblings (N = 602, ages = 2.5–29). AVR exhibits marked stability throughout childhood in individuals with and without ASD. - Child Development, EarlyView.

--- - |2+ Much of the current research concerning autism spectrum disorder (ASD) focuses on early identification of behaviors that may indicate future deficits or higher risk for a later diagnosis. Additionally, there exists a strong claim regarding the dimensional nature of ASD, such that even among non‐diagnosed individuals, a continuous distribution of symptom severity can be observed. Executive function (EF) has been widely studied in children, adolescents, and adults with ASD, with a robust body of research supporting widespread EF deficits in diagnosed individuals. However, it remains unclear how the degree of ASD symptomatology, outside of the presence of a diagnosis, affects EF abilities in a community sample. The First Year Inventory 2.0 (FYI 2.0), a parent‐report measure, was designed to identify infants at 12 months who are at risk for an eventual ASD diagnosis. In the current study, a continuous scoring scale was used to examine risk (overall, Social‐Communication, and Sensory‐Regulatory) from a dimensional perspective. Parents also completed the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function‐Preschool Version and the Social Responsiveness Scale‐2nd edition when their children were 42 months (3.5 years) old. Each FYI 2.0 risk variable significantly predicted scores on an overall EF composite and specific EF subscales. When controlling for general ASD symptomatology, Sensory‐Regulatory risk still significantly predicted EF deficits. This research provides additional support for a quantitative consideration of risk for ASD and presents novel findings regarding the relation between infant behaviors indicative of ASD risk and EF in early childhood. Autism Research 2018. © 2018 International Society for Autism Research, Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Lay Summary Children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) often have difficulty with executive function (EF) tasks that require a set of mental processes involved in goal‐directed behaviors. Studying children without ASD who may have symptoms affecting EF is also important. This study demonstrates that certain infant behaviors related to ASD are linked to early childhood EF difficulties. These results support looking at a range of ASD symptoms to better understand children who struggle with EF and potentially design tools to help them. - Autism Research, EarlyView.

--- - |2+ An important aspect of daily life is the ability to infer information about the contents of other people's minds, such as what they can see and what they know, in order to engage in successful interactions. This is referred to as possession of a “Theory of Mind” (ToM). Past research has shown that adults with Autistic Spectrum Disorders (ASD) often show deficits in social communication abilities, although can successfully pass tests of explicit ToM. The current study utilized a computerized false‐belief task to explore subtle differences (i.e., measuring response times and accuracy rates) in how efficiently ToM capacities—specifically, belief‐attribution—are utilized in adults with and without ASD. In the task, participants were asked to attribute a belief‐state to either themselves or another person, following establishment of a true or false‐belief scenario. Results revealed comparable patterns of ToM engagement across individuals with and without ASD, with faster and more accurate responses to “Self” versus “Other” oriented questions, and slower response times when shifting between the “Self” and “Other” perspective compared to when maintaining a perspective. However, autistic individuals showed a particular deficit in correctly identifying a belief‐state in false‐belief trials, in which two contrasting belief‐states had to be held in mind, suggesting more difficulty disengaging from current, reality based belief‐states than neuro‐typical individuals. Autism Res 2018. © 2018 International Society for Autism Research, Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Lay Summary To successfully communicate, we have to think about what other people do/do not know; this is called having a “Theory of Mind.” This study looked at how well people use their Theory of Mind when thinking about the contents of people's minds. Results showed that people with autism had difficulties considering more than one mental state at a time, suggesting they may have more trouble in stopping themselves thinking about what is happening in reality than people without autism. - Autism Research, EarlyView.

--- - |2+ Prior research has suggested that individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD) demonstrate heterogeneity in cognitive efficacy, challenged executive resources but efficient visual processing. These contrasts lead to opposing predictions about visuospatial working memory competency in both ASD and the broader autism phenotype (BAP); compromised by constrained executive processes, but potentially scaffolded by effective visual representation. It is surprising therefore, that there is a paucity of visual working memory (VWM) research in both the ASD and BAP populations, which have focused upon the visual features of the to‐be‐remembered stimulus. We assessed whether individual differences in VWM were associated with autistic‐like traits (ALTs) in the BAP. About 76 children carried out the Visual Just Noticeable Difference task, designed to measure high fidelity feature representation within VWM. ALTs were measured with the Children's Empathy Quotient and Systemizing Quotient. Analyses revealed a significant positive relationship between Systemizing and VWM performance. This complements ASD studies in visual processing and highlights the need for further research on the working memory—long‐term memory interface in ASD and BAP populations. Autism Research 2018. © 2018 International Society for Autism Research, Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Lay Summary This study was interested in how well children with high levels of autistic‐like traits (ALTs) carry out a task which involved memorizing, for brief time, the precise size of colored shapes. The results suggested that children with high levels of ALTs performed the task relatively well. This finding is in contrast to many previous studies suggest that ALTs are associated with poor memory, and suggests that future research needs to look more finely at how individuals carry out these tasks. - Autism Research, EarlyView.

--- - |2+ There is a significant research‐to‐practice gap in early detection of young children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) worldwide but particularly in low‐ and middle‐income countries (LMICs) where expertise is limited and high‐quality training is difficult to access. Autism Navigator® for Primary Care is a web‐based course designed to increase awareness of red flags of ASD in the second year of life and thus promote earlier detection and referral for intervention. It contains extensive video illustrations that offer rapid access to multiple exemplars of ASD red flags. This study examined aspects of feasibility of the Autism Navigator® for Primary Care in one LMIC, South Africa. A mixed‐methods quasi‐experimental design was used to examine relevant professionals' implementation of the course and measure changes in their knowledge of red flags after training. Perceptions of the acceptability, demand, and practicality of the course were explored in focus groups. Sixty‐two providers completed the course online with a 94% completion rate. Built‐in learner assessment pass rates ranged from 88% to 100%. Second‐language English speakers took longer to complete the learner assessments, and professionals with less access to the Internet spent less time in the course. Participants' perceptions of the acceptability, demand, and practicality of the course were mostly positive with some suggestions made for local conditions. Results supported the feasibility of the course in this LMIC with some supports required pertaining to language and Internet access. We propose that this training has the potential to lower the age of detection of ASD in South Africa and other LMICs. Autism Research 2018. © 2018 International Society for Autism Research, Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Lay Summary Professionals in low‐ and middle‐income countries urgently need training to recognize red flags of autism in very young children. The feasibility of utilizing the Autism Navigator® for Primary Care course for this training was explored with 62 South African professionals. After training, professionals' knowledge of early red flags improved, and most reported the course important and needed in South Africa. They found the web‐based design mostly acceptable, practical, and culturally applicable. The course could help lower the age of autism detection. - Autism Research, EarlyView.

--- - |2+ Abstract Purpose Families of children with disabilities often have needs related to the care of their child with a disability. Although there has been extensive exploration of family needs in high‐income contexts, there is little known about this issue in low and middle‐income countries like Bangladesh. In this study, we explored the needs of families of children with cerebral palsy in Bangladesh. Such understanding is important as it will help to improve services for children with disabilities and their families. Methods We used a qualitative approach and interviewed 20 family members of children with cerebral palsy who visited the Centre for the Rehabilitation of the Paralysed, Bangladesh. We thematically analyzed data from semistructured interviews. Results Five different themes were found on needs of families with children with disabilities: (a) financial needs, (b) needs for disability‐related services, (c) needs for family and community cohesion, (d) informational needs, and (e) emotional needs. Participants overwhelmingly reported that financial needs were their highest priority. Conclusion Needs of families of children with disabilities must be considered in rehabilitation services to improve children's outcomes. Further studies are required to explore needs of families of children with disabilities who do not have access to rehabilitation services. - 'Child: Care, Health and Development, EarlyView.
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--- - |2 Abstract We investigated the influence of globally ungrammatical local syntactic constraints on sentence comprehension, as well as the corresponding activation of global and local representations. In Experiment 1, participants viewed visual scenes with objects like a carousel and motorbike while hearing sentences with noun phrase (NP) or verb phrase (VP) modifiers like “The girl who likes the man (from London/very much) will ride the carousel.” In both cases, “girl” and “ride” predicted carousel as the direct object; however, the locally coherent combination “the man from London will ride…” in NP cases alternatively predicted motorbike. During “ride,” local constraints, although ruled out by the global constraints, influenced prediction as strongly as global constraints: While motorbike was fixated less than carousel in VP cases, it was fixated as much as carousel in NP cases. In Experiment 2, these local constraints likewise slowed reading times. We discuss implications for theories of sentence processing. - Cognitive Science, EarlyView.

--- - |2 Summary In forensic settings, lay (non‐expert) listeners may be required to compare voice samples for identity. In two experiments we investigated the effect of background noise and variations in speaking style on performance. In each trial, participants heard two recordings, responded whether the voices belonged to the same person, and provided a confidence rating. In Experiment 1, the first recording featured read speech, while the second featured read or spontaneous speech. Both recordings were presented in quiet, or with background noise. Accuracy was highest when recordings featured the same speaking style. In Experiment 2, background noise either occurred in the first or second recording. Accuracy was higher when it occurred in the second. The overall results reveal that both speaking style and background noise can disrupt accuracy. Whilst there is a relationship between confidence and accuracy in all conditions, it is variable. The forensic implications of these findings are discussed. - Applied Cognitive Psychology, Volume 0, Issue ja, -Not available-.

--- - |2 Is earlier intervention always superior? Using two complementary forms of meta‐analysis, Gardner and colleagues find no support for the “earlier is better” hypothesis in outcomes of parenting programs for child behavior problems across the 2–11 year age range. This commentary explores possible methodological and substantive reasons for the pattern of their findings. We need additional careful analyses of this kind, assessing age variations in intervention effects across broader age ranges, and in other developmental domains, for strong tests of the “earlier is better” hypothesis. At this stage, however, Gardner et al.'s findings give us some pause for thought. - Child Development, EarlyView.