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--- - - Journal of Educational Measurement, Volume 55, Issue 3, Page 355-356, Fall 2018.

--- - |2 Abstract This research derived information functions and proposed new scalar information indices to examine the quality of multidimensional forced choice (MFC) items based on the RANK model. We also explored how GGUM‐RANK information, latent trait recovery, and reliability varied across three MFC formats: pairs (two response alternatives), triplets (three alternatives), and tetrads (four alternatives). As expected, tetrad and triplet measures provided substantially more information than pairs, and MFC items composed of statements with high discrimination parameters were most informative. The methods and findings of this study will help practitioners to construct better MFC items, make informed projections about reliability with different MFC formats, and facilitate the development of MFC triplet‐ and tetrad‐based computerized adaptive tests. - Journal of Educational Measurement, Volume 55, Issue 3, Page 357-372, Fall 2018.

--- - |2 Abstract Person reliability parameters (PRPs) model temporary changes in individuals’ attribute level perceptions when responding to self‐report items (higher levels of PRPs represent less fluctuation). PRPs could be useful in measuring careless responding and traitedness. However, it is unclear how well current procedures for estimating PRPs can recover parameter estimates. This study assesses these procedures in terms of mean error (ME), average absolute difference (AAD), and reliability using simulated data with known values. Several prior distributions for PRPs were compared across a number of conditions. Overall, our results revealed little differences between using the χ or lognormal distributions as priors for estimated PRPs. Both distributions produced estimates with reasonable levels of ME; however, the AAD of the estimates was high. AAD did improve slightly as the number of items increased, suggesting that increasing the number of items would ameliorate this problem. Similarly, a larger number of items were necessary to produce reasonable levels of reliability. Based on our results, several conclusions are drawn and implications for future research are discussed. - Journal of Educational Measurement, Volume 55, Issue 3, Page 421-432, Fall 2018.

--- - |2 Abstract This study investigates the effect of multidimensionality on extraction of latent classes in mixture Rasch models. In this study, two‐dimensional data were generated under varying conditions. The two‐dimensional data sets were analyzed with one‐ to five‐class mixture Rasch models. Results of the simulation study indicate the mixture Rasch model tended to extract more latent classes than the number of dimensions simulated, particularly when the multidimensional structure of the data was more complex. In addition, the number of extracted latent classes decreased as the dimensions were more highly correlated regardless of multidimensional structure. An analysis of the empirical multidimensional data also shows that the number of latent classes extracted by the mixture Rasch model is larger than the number of dimensions measured by the test. - Journal of Educational Measurement, Volume 55, Issue 3, Page 403-420, Fall 2018.

--- - |2 Abstract Bayesian methods incorporate model parameter information prior to data collection. Eliciting information from content experts is an option, but has seen little implementation in Bayesian item response theory (IRT) modeling. This study aims to use ethical reasoning content experts to elicit prior information and incorporate this information into Markov Chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) estimation. A six‐step elicitation approach is followed, with relevant details at each stage for two IRT items parameters: difficulty and guessing. Results indicate that using content experts is the preferred approach, rather than noninformative priors, for both parameter types. The use of a noninformative prior for small samples provided dramatically different results when compared to results from content expert–elicited priors. The WAMBS (When to worry and how to Avoid the Misuse of Bayesian Statistics) checklist is used to aid in comparisons. - Journal of Educational Measurement, Volume 55, Issue 3, Page 373-402, Fall 2018.

Cross‐level invariance in a multilevel item response model can be investigated by testing whether the within‐level item discriminations are equal to the between‐level item discriminations. Testing the cross‐level invariance assumption is important to understand constructs in multilevel data. However, in most multilevel item response model applications, the cross‐level invariance is assumed without testing of the cross‐level invariance assumption. In this study, the detection methods of differential item discrimination (DID) over levels and the consequences of ignoring DID are illustrated and discussed with the use of multilevel item response models. Simulation results showed that the likelihood ratio test (LRT) performed well in detecting global DID at the test level when some portion of the items exhibited DID. At the item level, the Akaike information criterion (AIC), the sample‐size adjusted Bayesian information criterion (saBIC), LRT, and Wald test showed a satisfactory rejection rate (>.8) when some portion of the items exhibited DID and the items had lower intraclass correlations (or higher DID magnitudes). When DID was ignored, the accuracy of the item discrimination estimates and standard errors was mainly problematic. Implications of the findings and limitations are discussed.

When dealing with missing responses, two types of omissions can be discerned: items can be skipped or not reached by the test taker. When the occurrence of these omissions is related to the proficiency process the missingness is nonignorable. The purpose of this article is to present a tree‐based IRT framework for modeling responses and omissions jointly, taking into account that test takers as well as items can contribute to the two types of omissions. The proposed framework covers several existing models for missing responses, and many IRTree models can be estimated using standard statistical software. Further, simulated data is used to show that ignoring missing responses is less robust than often considered. Finally, as an illustration of its applicability, the IRTree approach is applied to data from the 2009 PISA reading assessment.

This study proposes a structured constructs model (SCM) to examine measurement in the context of a multidimensional learning progression (LP). The LP is assumed to have features that go beyond a typical multidimentional IRT model, in that there are hypothesized to be certain cross‐dimensional linkages that correspond to requirements between the levels of the different dimensions. The new model builds on multidimensional item response theory models and change‐point analysis to add cut‐score and discontinuity parameters that embody these substantive requirements. This modeling strategy allows us to place the examinees in the appropriate LP level and simultaneously to model the hypothesized requirement relations. Results from a simulation study indicate that the proposed change‐point SCM recovers the generating parameters well. When the hypothesized requirement relations are ignored, the model fit tends to become worse, and the model parameters appear to be more biased. Moreover, the proposed model can be used to find validity evidence to support or disprove initial theoretical hypothesized links in the LP through empirical data. We illustrate the technique with data from an assessment system designed to measure student progress in a middle‐school statistics and modeling curriculum.

Linking functions adjust for differences between identifiability restrictions used in different instances of the estimation of item response model parameters. These adjustments are necessary when results from those instances are to be compared. As linking functions are derived from estimated item response model parameters, parameter estimation error automatically propagates into linking error. This article explores an optimal linking design approach in which mixed‐integer programming is used to select linking items to minimize linking error. Results indicate that the method holds promise for selection of linking items.

The early detection of item drift is an important issue for frequently administered testing programs because items are reused over time. Unfortunately, operational data tend to be very sparse and do not lend themselves to frequent monitoring analyses, particularly for on‐demand testing. Building on existing residual analyses, the authors propose an item index that requires only moderate‐to‐small sample sizes to form data for time‐series analysis. Asymptotic results are presented to facilitate statistical significance tests. The authors show that the proposed index combined with time‐series techniques may be useful in detecting and predicting item drift. Most important, this index is related to a well‐known differential item functioning analysis so that a meaningful effect size can be proposed for item drift detection.

Response accuracy and response time data can be analyzed with a joint model to measure ability and speed of working, while accounting for relationships between item and person characteristics. In this study, person‐fit statistics are proposed for joint models to detect aberrant response accuracy and/or response time patterns. The person‐fit tests take the correlation between ability and speed into account, as well as the correlation between item characteristics. They are posited as Bayesian significance tests, which have the advantage that the extremeness of a test statistic value is quantified by a posterior probability. The person‐fit tests can be computed as by‐products of a Markov chain Monte Carlo algorithm. Simulation studies were conducted in order to evaluate their performance. For all person‐fit tests, the simulation studies showed good detection rates in identifying aberrant patterns. A real data example is given to illustrate the person‐fit statistics for the evaluation of the joint model.

Test assembly is the process of selecting items from an item pool to form one or more new test forms. Often new test forms are constructed to be parallel with an existing (or an ideal) test. Within the context of item response theory, the test information function (TIF) or the test characteristic curve (TCC) are commonly used as statistical targets to obtain this parallelism. In a recent study, Ali and van Rijn proposed combining the TIF and TCC as statistical targets, rather than using only a single statistical target. In this article, we propose two new methods using this combined approach, and compare these methods with single statistical targets for the assembly of mixed‐format tests. In addition, we introduce new criteria to evaluate the parallelism of multiple forms. The results show that single statistical targets can be problematic, while the combined targets perform better, especially in situations with increasing numbers of polytomous items. Implications of using the combined target are discussed.

As noted by Fremer and Olson, analysis of answer changes is often used to investigate testing irregularities because the analysis is readily performed and has proven its value in practice. Researchers such as Belov, Sinharay and Johnson, van der Linden and Jeon, van der Linden and Lewis, and Wollack, Cohen, and Eckerly have suggested several statistics for detection of aberrant answer changes. This article suggests a new statistic that is based on the likelihood ratio test. An advantage of the new statistic is that it follows the standard normal distribution under the null hypothesis of no aberrant answer changes. It is demonstrated in a detailed simulation study that the Type I error rate of the new statistic is very close to the nominal level and the power of the new statistic is satisfactory in comparison to those of several existing statistics for detecting aberrant answer changes. The new statistic and several existing statistics were shown to provide useful information for a real data set. Given the increasing interest in analysis of answer changes, the new statistic promises to be useful to measurement practitioners.

The focus of this article is on scale score transformations that can be used to stabilize conditional standard errors of measurement (CSEMs). Three transformations for stabilizing the estimated CSEMs are reviewed, including the traditional arcsine transformation, a recently developed general variance stabilization transformation, and a new method proposed in this article involving cubic transformations. Two examples are provided and the three scale score transformations are compared in terms of how well they stabilize CSEMs estimated from compound binomial and item response theory (IRT) models. Advantages of the cubic transformation are demonstrated with respect to CSEM stabilization and other scaling criteria (e.g., scale score distributions that are more symmetric).

The development of cognitive diagnostic‐computerized adaptive testing (CD‐CAT) has provided a new perspective for gaining information about examinees' mastery on a set of cognitive attributes. This study proposes a new item selection method within the framework of dual‐objective CD‐CAT that simultaneously addresses examinees' attribute mastery status and overall test performance. The new procedure is based on the Jensen‐Shannon (JS) divergence, a symmetrized version of the Kullback‐Leibler divergence. We show that the JS divergence resolves the noncomparability problem of the dual information index and has close relationships with Shannon entropy, mutual information, and Fisher information. The performance of the JS divergence is evaluated in simulation studies in comparison with the methods available in the literature. Results suggest that the JS divergence achieves parallel or more precise recovery of latent trait variables compared to the existing methods and maintains practical advantages in computation and item pool usage.

In equating, when common items are internal and scoring is conducted in terms of the number of correct items, some pairs of total scores (X) and common‐item scores (V) can never be observed in a bivariate distribution of X and V; these pairs are called structural zeros. This simulation study examines how equating results compare for different approaches to handling structural zeros. The study considers four approaches: the no‐smoothing, unique‐common, total‐common, and adjusted total‐common approaches. This study led to four main findings: (1) the total‐common approach generally had the worst results; (2) for relatively small effect sizes, the unique‐common approach generally had the smallest overall error; (3) for relatively large effect sizes, the adjusted total‐common approach generally had the smallest overall error; and, (4) if sole interest focuses on reducing bias only, the adjusted total‐common approach was generally preferable. These results suggest that, when common items are internal and log‐linear bivariate presmoothing is performed, structural zeros should be maintained, even if there is some loss in the moment preservation property.

Within educational data mining, many statistical models capture the learning of students working individually. However, not much work has been done to extend these statistical models of individual learning to a collaborative setting, despite the effectiveness of collaborative learning activities. We extend a widely used model (the additive factors model) to account for the effect of collaboration on individual learning, including having the help of a partner and getting to observe/help a partner. We find evidence that models that include these collaborative features have a better fit than the original models for performance data and that learning rates estimated using the extended models provide insights into how collaboration benefits individual students’ learning outcomes.

Collaborative problem solving (CPS) assessment is a new academic research field with a number of educational implications. In 2015, the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) assessed CPS with a computer‐simulated human‐agent (H‐A) approach that claimed to measure 12 individual CPS skills for the first time. After reviewing the approach, we conceptually embedded a computer‐based collaborative behavior assessment (COLBAS) into the overarching PISA 2015 CPS approach. COLBAS is an H‐A CPS assessment instrument that can be used to measure certain aspects of CPS. In addition, we applied a model‐based cluster analysis to the embedded COLBAS aspects. The analysis revealed three types of student collaborator profiles that differed in cognitive performance and motivation: (a) passive low‐performing (non‐)collaborators, (b) active high‐performing collaborators, and (c) compensating collaborators.

This article summarizes assessment of cognitive skills through collaborative tasks, using field test results from the Assessment and Teaching of 21st Century Skills (ATC21S) project. This project, sponsored by Cisco, Intel, and Microsoft, aims to help educators around the world enable students with the skills to succeed in future career and college goals. In this article, ATC21S collaborative assessments focus on the project's “ICT Literacy—Learning in digital networks” learning progression. The article includes a description of the development of the learning progression, as well as examples and the logic behind the instrument construction. Assessments took place in random pairs of students in a demonstration digital environment. Modeling of results employed unidimensional and multidimensional item response models, with and without random effects for groups. The results indicated that, based on this data set, the models that take group into consideration in both the unidimensional and the multidimensional analyses fit better. However, the group‐level variances were substantially higher than the individual‐level variances. This indicates that a total individual estimate of group plus individual is likely a more informative estimate than individual alone but also that the performances of the pairs dominated the performances of the individuals. Implications are discussed in the results and conclusions.

This article addresses performance assessments that involve collaboration among students. We apply the Hawkes process to infer whether the actions of one student are associated with increased probability of further actions by his/her partner(s) in the near future. This leads to an intuitive notion of engagement among collaborators, and we consider a model‐based index that can be used to quantify this notion. The approach is illustrated using a simulation‐based task designed for science education, in which pairs of collaborators interact using online chat. We also consider the empirical relationship between chat engagement and task performance, finding that less engaged collaborators were less likely to revise their responses after being given an opportunity to share their work with their partner.

Simulations and games offer interactive tasks that can elicit rich data, providing evidence of complex skills that are difficult to measure with more conventional items and tests. However, one notable challenge in using such technologies is making sense of the data generated in order to make claims about individuals or groups. This article presents a novel methodological approach that uses the process data and performance outcomes from a simulation‐based collaborative science assessment to explore the propensities of dyads to interact in accordance with certain interaction patterns. Further exploratory analyses examine how the approach can be used to answer important questions in collaboration research regarding gender and cultural differences in collaborative behavior and how interaction patterns relate to performance outcomes.

In order to understand potential applications of collaborative problem‐solving (CPS) assessment tasks, it is necessary to examine empirically the multifaceted student performance that may be distributed across collaboration methods and purposes of the assessment. Ideally, each student should be matched with various types of group members and must apply the skills in varied contexts and tasks. One solution to these assessment demands is to use computer‐based (virtual) agents to serve as the collaborators in the interactions with students. This article proposes a human‐to‐agent (H‐A) approach for formative CPS assessment and describes an international pilot study aimed to provide preliminary empirical findings on the use of H‐A CPS assessment to inform collaborative learning. Overall, the findings showed promise in terms of using a H‐A CPS assessment task as a formative tool for structuring effective groups in the context of CPS online learning.

Collaborative problem solving is a complex skill set that draws on social and cognitive factors. The construct remains in its infancy due to lack of empirical evidence that can be drawn upon for validation. The differences and similarities between two large‐scale initiatives that reflect this state of the art, in terms of underlying assumptions about the construct and approach to task development, are outlined. The goal is to clarify how definitions of the nature of the construct impact the approach to design of assessment tasks. Illustrations of two different approaches to the development of a task designed to elicit behaviors that manifest the construct are presented. The method highlights the degree to which these approaches might constrain a comprehensive assessment of the construct.

Previous research has shown that short-term mating orientation (STMO) and hostile sexism (HS) selectively predict different types of sexual harassment. In a priming experiment, we studied the situational malleability of those effects. Male participants could repeatedly send sexist jokes (gender harassment), harassing remarks (unwanted sexual attention), or nonharassing messages to a (computer-simulated) female target. Before entering the laboratory, participants were unobtrusively primed with the concepts of either sexuality or power. As hypothesized, sexuality priming strengthened the link between STMO and unwanted sexual attention, whereas power priming strengthened the link between HS and gender harassment. Practical implications are discussed.

How do technically-skilled women negotiate the male-dominated environments of technology firms? This article draws upon interviews with female programmers, technical writers, and engineers of diverse racial backgrounds and sexual orientations employed in the San Francisco tech industry. Using intersectional analysis, this study finds that racially dominant (white and Asian) women, who identified as LGBTQ and presented as gender-fluid, reported a greater sense of belonging in their workplace. They are perceived as more competent by male colleagues and avoided microaggressions that were routine among conventionally feminine, heterosexual women. We argue that a spectrum of belonging operates in these occupational spaces dominated by men. Although white and Asian women successfully navigated workplace hostilities by distancing themselves from conventional heterosexual femininity, this strategy reinforces inequality regimes that privilege male workers. These findings provide significant theoretical insights about how race, sexuality, and gender interact to reproduce structural inequalities in the new economy.

The Feminist Identity Composite is a commonly used measure of feminist identity development. However, psychometric examinations of this measure with samples of diverse women are lacking. The current study presents the first investigation, to our knowledge, to examine the factor structure of the Feminist Identity Composite with two subsamples of sexual minority women (N = 402). We used exploratory factor analysis (EFA), partial confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), and CFA and found both the EFA and subsequent partial CFA (n = 201) indicated a six-factor solution, which was upheld in the final CFA (n = 201). The results generally corroborated four (Passive Acceptance, Embeddedness/Emanation, Synthesis, Active Commitment) of the five original subscales reported in previous studies with predominately heterosexual (or sexual orientation not reported) undergraduate women. However, the subscale Revelation was further delineated into two subscales labeled Societal Revelation and Contact Revelation. Convergent validity of the obtained Feminist Identity Composite subscale scores was largely supported by correlations in expected directions with measures of perceived sexism and heterosexism. We encourage future researchers to investigate the structural and convergent validity of the Feminist Identity Composite with other diverse samples of women.

According to the spatial agency bias model, in Western cultures agentic targets are envisaged as facing and acting rightward, in line with writing direction. In four studies of Italian participants, we examined the symbolic association between agency and the rightward direction (Study 1, N = 96), its spontaneous activation when attributing agency to female and male targets (Study 2, N = 80) or when judging the authenticity of photographs of men and women (Study 3, N = 57), and its possible relation to stereotype endorsement (Study 4, N = 80). In Study 4, we used a conditioning paradigm in which participants learned a counterstereotypical new association; we developed a novel measure to assess the association between gender and spatial direction, namely, the spatial association task. Participants envisaged and cognitively processed male and female targets in line with the spatial agency bias model and reported lower benevolent sexism after learning a new counterstereotypical spatial association. Our findings raise awareness about the biased use of space (and its consequences) in the representation of women and men, so that all people, and especially communicators and policy makers, can actively intervene to promote gender equality. Additional online materials for this article are available to PWQ subscribers on PWQ’s website at http://pwq.sagepub.com/supplemental

Both traditional gender roles and traditional heterosexual scripts outline sexual roles for women that center on sexual passivity, prioritizing others’ needs, and self-silencing. Acceptance of these roles is associated with diminished sexual agency. Because mainstream media are a prominent source of traditional gender portrayals, we hypothesized that media use would be associated with diminished sexual agency for women, as a consequence of the traditional sexual roles conveyed. We modeled the relations among television (TV) use, acceptance of gendered sexual scripts, and sexual agency (sexual assertiveness, condom use self-efficacy, and sexual shame) in 415 sexually active undergraduate women. As expected, both TV exposure and perceived realism of TV content were associated with greater endorsement of gendered sexual scripts, which in turn were associated with lower sexual agency. Endorsement of gendered sexual scripts fully mediated the relation between TV use and sexual agency. Results suggest that endorsement of traditional gender roles and sexual scripts may be an important predictor of college women’s sexual agency. Interventions targeting women’s sexual health should focus on encouraging media literacy and dismantling gender stereotypic heterosexual scripts.

In this study, we describe what factors influence the observed score correlation between an (external) anchor test and a total test. We show that the anchor to full‐test observed score correlation is based on two components: the true score correlation between the anchor and total test, and the reliability of the anchor test. Findings using an analytical approach suggest that making an anchor test a miditest does not generally maximize the anchor to total test correlation. Results are discussed in the context of what conditions maximize the correlations between the anchor and total test.

This article presents a novel method, the Complex Dynamics Essay Scorer (CDES), for automated essay scoring using complex network features. Texts produced by college students in China were represented as scale‐free networks (e.g., a word adjacency model) from which typical network features, such as the in‐/out‐degrees, clustering coefficient (CC), and dynamic networks, were obtained. The CDES integrates the classical concepts of network feature representation and essay score series variation. Several experiments indicated that the network measures different essay qualities and can be clearly demonstrated to develop complex networks for autoscoring tasks. The average agreement of the CDES and human rater scores was 86.5%, and the average Pearson correlation was .77. The results indicate that the CDES produced functional complex systems and autoscored Chinese essays in a method consistent with human raters. Our research suggests potential applications in other areas of educational assessment.

In observed‐score equipercentile equating, the goal is to make scores on two scales or tests measuring the same construct comparable by matching the percentiles of the respective score distributions. If the tests consist of different items with multiple categories for each item, a suitable model for the responses is a polytomous item response theory (IRT) model. The parameters from such a model can be utilized to derive the score probabilities for the tests and these score probabilities may then be used in observed‐score equating. In this study, the asymptotic standard errors of observed‐score equating using score probability vectors from polytomous IRT models are derived using the delta method. The results are applied to the equivalent groups design and the nonequivalent groups design with either chain equating or poststratification equating within the framework of kernel equating. The derivations are presented in a general form and specific formulas for the graded response model and the generalized partial credit model are provided. The asymptotic standard errors are accurate under several simulation conditions relating to sample size, distributional misspecification and, for the nonequivalent groups design, anchor test length.

This article introduces the Diagnostic Profiles (DP) standard setting method for setting a performance standard on a test developed from a cognitive diagnostic model (CDM), the outcome of which is a profile of mastered and not‐mastered skills or attributes rather than a single test score. In the DP method, the key judgment task for panelists is a decision on whether or not individual cognitive skill profiles meet the performance standard. A randomized experiment was carried out in which secondary mathematics teachers were randomly assigned to either the DP method or the modified Angoff method. The standard setting methods were applied to a test of student readiness to enter high school algebra (Algebra I). While the DP profile judgments were perceived to be more difficult than the Angoff item judgments, there was a high degree of agreement among the panelists for most of the profiles. In order to compare the methods, cut scores were generated from the DP method. The results of the DP group were comparable to the Angoff group, with less cut score variability in the DP group. The DP method shows promise for testing situations in which diagnostic information is needed about examinees and where that information needs to be linked to a performance standard.

For a certification, licensure, or placement exam, allowing examinees to take multiple attempts at the test could effectively change the pass rate. Change in the pass rate can occur without any change in the underlying latent trait, and can be an artifact of multiple attempts and imperfect reliability of the test. By deriving formulae to compute the pass rate under two definitions, this article provides tools for testing practitioners to compute and evaluate the change in the expected pass rate when a certain (maximum) number of attempts are allowed without any change in the latent trait. This article also includes a simulation study that considers change in ability and differential motivation of examinees to retake the test. Results indicate that the general trend shown by the analytical results is maintained—that is, the marginal expected pass rate increases with more attempts when the testing volume is defined as the total number of test takers, and decreases with more attempts when the testing volume is defined as the total number of test attempts.

This study adapted an effect size measure used for studying differential item functioning (DIF) in unidimensional tests and extended the measure to multidimensional tests. Two effect size measures were considered in a multidimensional item response theory model: signed weighted P‐difference and unsigned weighted P‐difference. The performance of the effect size measures was investigated under various simulation conditions including different sample sizes and DIF magnitudes. As another way of studying DIF, the χ2 difference test was included to compare the result of statistical significance (statistical tests) with that of practical significance (effect size measures). The adequacy of existing effect size criteria used in unidimensional tests was also evaluated. Both effect size measures worked well in estimating true effect sizes, identifying DIF types, and classifying effect size categories. Finally, a real data analysis was conducted to support the simulation results.

This article examines the use of battered woman syndrome (BWS) expert testimonies in Canadian case law, regarding cases involving murder or attempted murder of abusive partners by women in violent intimate relationships. The purpose of this article is to contribute to literature about the use of BWS evidence in Canadian jurisprudence with connections to social work. The author provides a historical overview of the use of BWS testimonies in Canada and presents case examples. The article explores the benefits of BWS testimonies, its limitations, recommendations for reformulating its use, and implications for social work practice.

This article considers the challenges 21st-century social workers face and focuses specifically on that of racism including Islamophobia and structural inequalities in the society generally. It argues that social workers have the knowledge, skills, and values to endorse egalitarian relations across racial divides.

The prevailing metaphor for understanding the persistence of gender inequalities in universities is the "chilly climate." Women faculty sometimes resist descriptions of their workplaces as "chilly" and deny that gender matters, however, even in the face of considerable evidence to the contrary. I draw on interviews with women academics (N=102) to explore this apparent paradox, and I offer a theoretical synthesis that may help explain it. I build on insights from Ridgeway and Acker to demonstrate that women do experience gender at work, but the contexts in which they experience it have implications for how they understand gender’s importance and whether to respond. Specifically, I find that women are likely to minimize or deny gender’s importance in interactions. When it becomes salient in structures and cultures, women understand it differently. Placing gender in organizational context can better inform our understanding of gender inequality at work and can help in crafting more effective efforts to foster gender equity.

This article describes the analysis of regression-discontinuity designs (RDDs) using the R packages rdd, rdrobust, and rddtools. We discuss similarities and differences between these packages and provide directions on how to use them effectively. We use real data from the Carolina Abecedarian Project to show how an analysis of an RDD can be performed from start to finish.

Pubic hair removal, now common among women in Anglo/western cultures, has been theorised as a disciplinary practice. As many other feminine bodily practices, it is characterised by removal or alteration of aspects of women's material body (i.e., pubic hair) considered unattractive but otherwise "natural." Emerging against this theorisation is a discourse of personal agency and choice, wherein women assert autonomy and self-mastery of their own bodies and body practices. In this paper, we use a thematic analysis to examine the interview talk about pubic hair from 11 sexually and ethnically diverse young women in New Zealand. One overarching theme – pubic hair is undesirable; its removal is desirable – encapsulates four themes we discuss in depth, which illustrate the personal, interpersonal and sociocultural influences intersecting the practice: (a) pubic hair removal is a personal choice; (b) media promote pubic hair removal; (c) friends and family influence pubic hair removal; and (d) the (imagined) intimate influences pubic hair removal. Despite minor variations among queer women, a perceived norm of genital hairlessness was compelling among the participants. Despite the articulated freedom to practise pubic hair removal, any freedom from participating in this practice appeared limited, rendering the suggestion that it is just a "choice" problematic.

Path models with observed composites based on multiple items (e.g., mean or sum score of the items) are commonly used to test interaction effects. Under this practice, researchers generally assume that the observed composites are measured without errors. In this study, we reviewed and evaluated two alternative methods within the structural equation modeling (SEM) framework, namely, the reliability-adjusted product indicator (RAPI) method and the latent moderated structural equations (LMS) method, which can both flexibly take into account measurement errors. Results showed that both these methods generally produced unbiased estimates of the interaction effects. On the other hand, the path model—without considering measurement errors—led to substantial bias and a low confidence interval coverage rate of nonzero interaction effects. Other findings and implications for future studies are discussed.

There is no abstract available for this paper.

There is no abstract available for this paper.

There is no abstract available for this paper.

There is no abstract available for this paper.

In psychometric practice, the parameter estimates of a standard item-response theory (IRT) model can become biased when item-response data, of persons’ individual responses to test items, contain outliers relative to the model. Also, the manual removal of outliers can be a time-consuming and difficult task. Besides, removing outliers leads to data information loss in parameter estimation. To address these concerns, a Bayesian IRT model that includes person and latent item-response outlier parameters, in addition to person ability and item parameters, is proposed and illustrated, and is defined by item characteristic curves (ICCs) that are each specified by a robust, Student’s t-distribution function. The outlier parameters and the robust ICCs enable the model to automatically identify item-response outliers, and to make estimates of the person ability and item parameters more robust to outliers. Hence, under this IRT model, it is unnecessary to remove outliers from the data analysis. Our IRT model is illustrated through the analysis of two data sets, involving dichotomous- and polytomous-response items, respectively.

Intersectionality is a useful approach to understand the marginalization of ethnic minority (EM) sexual assault survivors. By using this approach, we are able to recognize the interplay and complexity between gender, class, and race that give rise to the inequality and oppression that experienced by EM women in Hong Kong. Findings of the study show that rape myths, gender-role perception, religion, kinship pressure, language barriers, citizenship, and immigration policy have constituted interlocking factors that shape the victim identity of EM sexual assault survivors.

Test items scored as polytomous have the potential to display multidimensionality across rating scale score categories. This article uses a multidimensional nominal response model (MNRM) to examine the possibility that the proficiency dimension/dimensional composite best measured by a polytomously scored item may vary by score category, an issue not generally considered in multidimensional item response theory (MIRT). Some practical considerations in exploring rubric-related multidimensionality, including potential consequences of not attending to it, are illustrated through simulation examples. A real data application is applied in the study of item format effects using the 2007 administration of Trends in Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) among eighth graders in the United States.

Survey data show that most Tanzanian women find wife-beating justifiable. What is the meaning of the violence that enjoys such broad social approval? Does respect for women’s agency invalidate feminist opposition to wife-beating? I explore these questions by analyzing data on hegemonic norms generated through 27 focus group discussions in Arumeru and Kigoma-Vijijini districts, and find that wife-beating was supported for its role in constituting social order. This analysis of how exactly violence can constitute order yielded insights into the interplay between violence and consent that are theoretically relevant to violence against women in other forms and contexts, reminding researchers and practitioners of the role of power and coercion in supposedly agreed-upon community norms.

There has been limited investigation of mothers’ drinking patterns and their experience of domestic abuse while parenting young children, especially in the context of co-resident fathers’ drinking. Using data representative of the 2001 U.S. birth cohort, the authors conducted longitudinal latent class analyses of maternal drinking over four perinatal time points as predictors of maternal victimization at 2 years postpartum due to intimate partner violence. Women classified as higher risk drinkers over the study period faced significantly increased risk of physical abuse while parenting a 2-year-old child. Among non-drinking mothers, paternal binge drinking signaled additional risk, with clinical and programmatic implications.

Cluster randomized trials involving participants nested within intact treatment and control groups are commonly performed in various educational, psychological, and biomedical studies. However, recruiting and retaining intact groups present various practical, financial, and logistical challenges to evaluators and often, cluster randomized trials are performed with a low number of clusters (~20 groups). Although multilevel models are often used to analyze nested data, researchers may be concerned of potentially biased results due to having only a few groups under study. Cluster bootstrapping has been suggested as an alternative procedure when analyzing clustered data though it has seen very little use in educational and psychological studies. Using a Monte Carlo simulation that varied the number of clusters, average cluster size, and intraclass correlations, we compared standard errors using cluster bootstrapping with those derived using ordinary least squares regression and multilevel models. Results indicate that cluster bootstrapping, though more computationally demanding, can be used as an alternative procedure for the analysis of clustered data when treatment effects at the group level are of primary interest. Supplementary material showing how to perform cluster bootstrapped regressions using R is also provided.