The Feminist Identity Composite is a commonly used measure of feminist identity development. However, psychometric examinations of this measure with samples of diverse women are lacking. The current study presents the first investigation, to our knowledge, to examine the factor structure of the Feminist Identity Composite with two subsamples of sexual minority women (N = 402). We used exploratory factor analysis (EFA), partial confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), and CFA and found both the EFA and subsequent partial CFA (n = 201) indicated a six-factor solution, which was upheld in the final CFA (n = 201). The results generally corroborated four (Passive Acceptance, Embeddedness/Emanation, Synthesis, Active Commitment) of the five original subscales reported in previous studies with predominately heterosexual (or sexual orientation not reported) undergraduate women. However, the subscale Revelation was further delineated into two subscales labeled Societal Revelation and Contact Revelation. Convergent validity of the obtained Feminist Identity Composite subscale scores was largely supported by correlations in expected directions with measures of perceived sexism and heterosexism. We encourage future researchers to investigate the structural and convergent validity of the Feminist Identity Composite with other diverse samples of women.
According to the spatial agency bias model, in Western cultures agentic targets are envisaged as facing and acting rightward, in line with writing direction. In four studies of Italian participants, we examined the symbolic association between agency and the rightward direction (Study 1, N = 96), its spontaneous activation when attributing agency to female and male targets (Study 2, N = 80) or when judging the authenticity of photographs of men and women (Study 3, N = 57), and its possible relation to stereotype endorsement (Study 4, N = 80). In Study 4, we used a conditioning paradigm in which participants learned a counterstereotypical new association; we developed a novel measure to assess the association between gender and spatial direction, namely, the spatial association task. Participants envisaged and cognitively processed male and female targets in line with the spatial agency bias model and reported lower benevolent sexism after learning a new counterstereotypical spatial association. Our findings raise awareness about the biased use of space (and its consequences) in the representation of women and men, so that all people, and especially communicators and policy makers, can actively intervene to promote gender equality. Additional online materials for this article are available to PWQ subscribers on PWQ’s website at http://pwq.sagepub.com/supplemental
Both traditional gender roles and traditional heterosexual scripts outline sexual roles for women that center on sexual passivity, prioritizing others’ needs, and self-silencing. Acceptance of these roles is associated with diminished sexual agency. Because mainstream media are a prominent source of traditional gender portrayals, we hypothesized that media use would be associated with diminished sexual agency for women, as a consequence of the traditional sexual roles conveyed. We modeled the relations among television (TV) use, acceptance of gendered sexual scripts, and sexual agency (sexual assertiveness, condom use self-efficacy, and sexual shame) in 415 sexually active undergraduate women. As expected, both TV exposure and perceived realism of TV content were associated with greater endorsement of gendered sexual scripts, which in turn were associated with lower sexual agency. Endorsement of gendered sexual scripts fully mediated the relation between TV use and sexual agency. Results suggest that endorsement of traditional gender roles and sexual scripts may be an important predictor of college women’s sexual agency. Interventions targeting women’s sexual health should focus on encouraging media literacy and dismantling gender stereotypic heterosexual scripts.
Despite evidence that gender biases contribute to the persistent underrepresentation of women in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics, interventions that enhance gender bias literacy about these fields remain rare. The current research tested the effectiveness of two theoretically grounded sets of videos at increasing gender bias literacy as characterized by (a) awareness of bias, (b) knowledge of gender inequity, (c) feelings of efficacy at being able to notice bias, and (d) recognition and confrontation of bias across situations. The narrative videos utilized entertaining stories to illustrate gender bias, while the expert interview videos discussed the same bias during an interview with a psychology professor. The narrative videos increased participants’ immersion in the story and identification with characters, whereas the expert interviews promoted logical thinking and perceptions of being knowledgeable about gender bias facts. Compared with control videos, the narrative and expert interview videos increased awareness of bias (Experiments 1 and 2) and influenced knowledge of gender inequity, self-efficacy beliefs, and the recognition of bias in everyday situations (Experiment 2). However, only the expert interview videos affected participants’ intentions to confront unfair treatment. Additional online materials for this article are available to PWQ subscribers on PWQ’s website at http://pwq.sagepub.com/supplemental
Although the link between fat talk and body dissatisfaction is well established, the link between fat talk and other body image disturbance components remains underexplored. Our meta-analytic review explored the cross-sectional, experimental, and longitudinal relations between fat talk and body dissatisfaction, body surveillance, body shame, pressure to be thin, thin-ideal internalization, body checking, and appearance-based comparisons. We identified 35 relevant studies via electronic databases. Meta-analyses provided effect size estimates based on study design and whether fat talk was the predictor or outcome of body image disturbance. Results showed that fat talk is related to a broader range of body image constructs than just body dissatisfaction and that accumulated evidence from longitudinal and experimental studies—although limited in number—suggests it is more plausible that fat talk is a risk factor for these body image constructs, rather than a consequence of them. Nevertheless, the suggestion that fat talk may play a role in the causal sequence of body image issues highlights this as a potential area of intervention for researchers and clinicians. Moreover, given that fat talk is common and often well intentioned, awareness-raising exercises for parents and peers may be necessary to curb its incidence and impacts. Supplementary materials contain the forest plots from the meta-analysis and are available on the PWQ website at http://pwq.sagepub.com/content/by/supplemental-data
HIV seropositive individuals and their heterosexual partners/spouses, either seropositive or seronegative, are facing several mental health challenges. The objective of this study was to examine gender differences in depressive symptoms among HIV-positive concordant and HIV-discordant couples. We identified heterosexual couples from participants of a randomized controlled trial conducted in Anhui province, China. A total of 265 couples, comprising 129 HIV+ male/HIV– female couples, 98 HIV– male/HIV+ female couples, and 38 HIV-positive concordant couples, were included in the analyses. We collected data using the computer-assisted personal interview method. We used a linear mixed-effects regression model to assess whether gender differences in depressive symptoms varied across couple types. HIV-positive women reported a significantly higher level of depressive symptoms than their partners/spouses. HIV-positive women with HIV-positive partners had higher depressive symptoms than those with HIV-negative partners, whereas HIV-positive men reported similar levels of depressive symptoms regardless of their partners’ serostatus. Among the concordant couples, those with the highest annual family income showed the greatest gender differences in depressive symptoms. We suggest that family interventions should be gender- and couple-type specific and that mental health counseling is warranted not only for HIV-positive women but also for HIV-negative women in an HIV-affected relationship.
Although breastfeeding has multiple benefits for baby and mother, including maternal mental well-being, many mothers terminate breastfeeding earlier than they desire. We examined two key factors in breastfeeding duration and maternal mental health––breastfeeding efficacy and family–work conflict. Specifically, we examined the moderating role of family–work conflict in the process of breastfeeding efficacy as a predictor of maternal depression by way of duration. In a sample of first-time mothers, we found that breastfeeding duration mediated the relation between prenatal breastfeeding efficacy and depression at 9 months postpartum for working mothers who experienced low levels of family-to-work conflict. That is, for mothers with low family-to-work conflict, higher expected breastfeeding efficacy during pregnancy predicted a longer duration of breastfeeding, which in turn was associated with lower depression at 9 months postpartum. However, for working mothers with high family-to-work conflict, breastfeeding duration did not emerge as an indirect effect on the relation between efficacy and depression. These findings have important implications for a healthy family–work balance to help new mothers adjust when they return to the workforce and as they transition to parenthood.
Proponents of sexual economics theory argue that women exchange sex for men’s resources. This idea is likely to promote a competitive view of gender relationships that undermines gender equality by characterizing women as manipulative and financially dependent on men. Heterosexual college students (N = 474) who were randomly exposed to a popular YouTube video describing sexual economics theory increased their (1) behavioral support for sexual exchange concepts, (2) endorsement of the theory, and (3) adversarial views of heterosexual relationships, compared with a control group of students. Sexual exchange theory endorsement and adversarial heterosexual beliefs positively covaried, and both attitudes were related to participants’ sexism. Reading a critique of sexual exchange theory, that emphasized mutual respect and affection as precursors to heterosexual intimacy, counteracted the consequences of exposure to the theory. The findings provide evidence that disseminating sexual exchange theory via video on the Internet negatively affects young adults’ views of gender relationships. Educators, and others who wish to explore sexual economics theory through the use of this video, should also include a discussion of the countervailing evidence available.
Although many researchers have explored the relations among gender identification, discriminatory attributions, and intentions to challenge discrimination, few have examined the causal impact of gender identity salience on women’s actual responses to a sexist encounter. In the current study, we addressed this question by experimentally manipulating the salience of gender identity and assessing its impact on women’s decision to confront a sexist comment in a simulated online interaction. Female participants (N = 114) were randomly assigned to complete a short measure of either personal or collective self-esteem, which was designed to increase the salience of personal versus gender identity. They were then given the opportunity to confront a male interaction partner who expressed sexist views. Compared to those who were primed to focus on their personal identity, participants who were primed to focus on their gender identity perceived the interaction partner’s remarks as more sexist and were more likely to engage in confrontation. By highlighting the powerful role of subtle contextual cues in shaping women’s perceptions of, and responses to, sexism, our findings have important implications for the understanding of gender identity salience as an antecedent of prejudice confrontation. The gender identity salience manipulation used in the current study can be found in the online supplemental materials for this manuscript at http://pwq.sagepub.com/supplemental
First-time sexual intercourse with a new male partner, relative to other sexual encounters, is associated with heightened risk to women for contracting sexually transmitted infections. Little is known, however, about women’s condom-related decision-making processes during these first-time sexual encounters. In the present study, we surveyed a community sample of 179 women aged 18–30 about their alcohol consumption, desire to use a condom, perception of their partner’s desire to use a condom, condom-insistence conflict, and condom-decision abdication and use during their most recent alcohol-involved first-time sexual encounter with a new partner. With structural equation modeling, we tested a cognitive mediation model with various configurations of alcohol effects on abdication and condom use (direct, indirect, and moderator). A moderated mediation model fit the data best. Women experienced elevated condom-insistence conflict when they wanted to use a condom and perceived their partner did not; conflict, in turn, was associated with higher likelihood of abdication and lower likelihood of condom use. Higher alcohol intoxication attenuated the associations of desire to use a condom, and perceived partner’s desire to use a condom, with conflict. Results support an alcohol myopia-conflict inhibition-reduction model and emphasize the importance of sex education programs that not only teach young women about condom-related assertiveness and the effects of alcohol but also prepare them to respond to experiences of conflict that arise during sexual encounters.
In this study, we link together moments of discrimination described by young bisexual women. We do so in order to theorize about associations between negative stereotypes heard early in one’s life and later minimization of personal discrimination. Using interviews with 13 young women, we sought to understand the types of negative messages participants heard about "bi/sexuality" as well as the ways that they perceived or did not perceive themselves as having experienced discrimination related to their sexuality. We found that family members and friends often described participants’ bisexuality as "disgusting," "difficult to understand," or "hot," and participants described their own experiences with discrimination as "no big deal." We use this analysis to build on previous research concerning microaggressions, sexual stigma, and denial of discrimination to discuss how familial, social, and political environments create a set of conditions in which later injustices are imagined as normative and inevitable. Finally, we discuss the methodological dilemmas facing feminist psychologists who aim to analyze discrimination and the challenges in documenting individuals’ experiences of stigma, which may be imagined as no big deal to individuals but are in fact unjust. It is imperative to develop strategies to recognize, document, and critically assess how injustice becomes all too normal for some and the role that feminist psychology can play in changing this.
Lesbian women engage in more hazardous drinking than heterosexual women yet we know relatively little about what explains this disparity. In the present study, race, socioeconomic status (SES), minority stress, general psychological processes, and distress were examined as pathways to hazardous drinking among young (18–35 years) Black and non-Hispanic White lesbian women. We used the psychological mediation framework adaptation of minority stress theory and the reserve capacity model as theoretical underpinnings of the conceptual model in the current study. Self-identified lesbian participants (N = 867) completed a onetime online survey that assessed race, SES, perceived sexual minority discrimination, proximal minority stress (concealment, internalized homophobia, lack of connection to lesbian community), rumination, social isolation, psychological distress, drinking to cope, and hazardous drinking. Cross-sectional results demonstrated that being Black was associated with hazardous drinking via sequential mediators of rumination, psychological distress, and drinking to cope. SES was associated with hazardous drinking via sequential mediators of sexual minority discrimination, proximal minority stress, rumination, social isolation, psychological distress, and drinking to cope. Understanding these pathways can aid researchers and clinicians studying and working with lesbians who are at risk for hazardous drinking.
Minority stressors encountered by lesbian, gay, and bisexual (LGB) women are inherently connected to contextual experiences. Although there is a growing body of research on the benefits of gaining political rights and the costs of their denial, little research has focused on the effects of access to LGB-affirmative resources. In the current study with 1,017 women in same-sex relationships, we created profiles using latent class analysis to characterize the contexts in which participants were raised and the contexts in which they lived at the time of the study. We examined differences in interpersonal relationships, internalized heterosexism (IH), and outness across these profiles. Class 1 (28%) included participants who always lived in affirmative contexts with LGB-supportive resources. Class 2 participants (28%) always lived in more heterosexist contexts with few resources. Class 3 participants (44%) originally lived in more heterosexist contexts with few resources but shifted to more affirmative contexts. Class 3 individuals had greater social support and lower IH than Class 2 participants. Classes 1 and 3 had greater outness than Class 2. This study provides evidence linking IH to the lack of contextual supports. Our data also suggest that the quality of relationships for LGB women may remain strong even in heterosexist contexts. Actions that increase affirming resources will provide avenues for more positive identity development and interpersonal relationships for LGB individuals.
We surveyed 525 graduate students (61.7% females and 38.3% males) regarding their exposure to sexual and gender-based harassing events. Thirty-eight percent of female and 23.4% of male participants self-reported that they had experienced sexual harassment from faculty or staff; 57.7% of female and 38.8% of male participants reported they had experienced sexual harassment from other students. We explored the relation between sexual harassment and negative outcomes (trauma symptoms, campus safety, and institutional betrayal) while also considering associations with other types of victimization (sexual assault, stalking, and dating violence) during graduate school. Our results update and extend prior research on sexual harassment of graduate students; graduate-level female students continue to experience significantly more sexual harassment from faculty, staff, and students than their male counterparts, and sexual harassment is significantly associated with negative outcomes after considering other forms of victimization. Leaders in the academic community and therapists can apply these findings in their work with sexually harassed students to destigmatize the experience, validate the harm, and work toward preventing future incidents.
In a study of 639 female undergraduates in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) majors, we found that the relation between a negative academic climate and more interference between identities as women and as scientists, and lower science performance perceptions, was mediated by lower psychological well-being. We also found partial support for gender identity (centrality, private regard, and public regard) as a buffer of the link between climate/interference and psychological well-being. Specifically, gender centrality buffered the link between identity interference and well-being. Gender public regard buffered the association of both negative climate and interference with well-being, and gender private regard exacerbated the link between interference and well-being. We discuss these results in terms of the benefits that gender identification may provide for women in STEM and suggest that educators create networks for women in STEM, while working to reduce sexism and improve academic climates.
Reflecting the wide range of consensual unwanted sexual experiences, researchers often have contrasting views of the impact of these incidents on young women. Some scholars support a normalizing view of these as fairly harmless and ordinary aspects of relationships, akin to other forms of willing compromises between partners. Other researchers problematize unwanted sexual experiences, framing them in terms of gender inequalities and detrimental effects. In the current study, we were interested in how young women themselves characterized their unwanted sexual experiences and whether these accounts varied according to a woman’s social location. We interviewed 41 young women (18–22 years old) from three groups: affluent undergraduates, low-income undergraduates, and low-income nonstudents. Almost all of the affluent undergraduates framed their unwanted sexual experiences in normalizing terms, representing such events as relatively harmless incidents and outgrowths of developmental experimentation. In contrast, the low-income students and nonstudents both articulated more ambivalent positions and were more inclined to link their experience to sources of vulnerability, including personal adversity (e.g., trauma, social, and material insecurity) and social norms and stigma. Participants’ sexual histories, life circumstances, and standpoints at the intersection of gender and class were reflected in their experiences of unwanted sex, reinforcing that contextualized analyses and interventions are essential to advancing women’s sexual rights and well-being.
In this qualitative study, we examined perceptions of the strong Black woman (SBW) or superwoman role in a sample of 30 Black women. We found that participants conceptualized the SBW/superwoman role through five characteristics: independent, taking care of family and others, hardworking and high achieving, overcoming adversity, and emotionally contained. Most participants were ambivalent about their relationship with this role, given historical accounts and familial examples of Black women. Many participants appropriated the SBW/superwoman role by redefining it in ways that were more empowering and freeing. Several participants were critical of and rejected the SBW/superwoman role, focusing on its problematic and rigid view of strength. All of these perspectives underscore the importance of increasing awareness of restrictive gendered and racialized role expectations as well as the desire to maintain connections to the cultural legacy of Black women. Several important contextual factors (e.g., social status, family relationships) emerged that are relevant to the identified themes. Results from this study highlight how the discourse of strength and familiarity with the SBW/superwoman role are pervasive among Black women. Our findings underscore the need for practitioners to understand the complexity in how Black women make meaning of this role relative to help seeking for physical and mental health.
Sexual assault prevalence rates differ by ethnicity, and there is little research on sexual assault in women of Asian/Pacific Islander ancestry, compared to women of European ancestry. In the current online study, we examined heavy episodic drinking, rates of assault, and assault severity among native and nonnative English-speaking college students of Asian/Pacific Islander ancestry. Native English-speaking students of Asian/Pacific Islander ancestry reported similar sexual assault severity before and since college, compared to their nonnative English-speaking counterparts. Students of European ancestry reported more severe before-college sexual assault histories than native English-speaking students of Asian/Pacific Islander ancestry. No group differences were found in college sexual assault severity. Students of European ancestry reported more frequent heavy episodic drinking than native English-speaking students of Asian/Pacific Islander ancestry, which in turn was associated with more severe assaults since college. For all students, more frequent heavy episodic drinking was associated with more severe assaults in college. Because all students are at risk of being assaulted, culturally sensitive programming should be developed for students of Asian/Pacific Islander ancestry.
Intersectional approaches, which consider how simultaneous membership in multiple social categories characterize our experiences and are linked to power and privilege, have deep roots in feminist psychology. While an intersectional approach is well suited to a variety of research questions and topics, its application to date has chiefly been found with qualitative methods; when quantitative methods are used, components of the approach are used but not clearly framed as intersectional. Building upon our previous discussion and analysis of the theoretical and epistemological issues that arise when combining intersectionality and quantitative methods, this article articulates how quantitative researchers might incorporate an intersectional approach into their work. The techniques we describe are frequently used within quantitative methods, but they are infrequently used within an intersectional approach. Techniques include framing social categories (e.g., gender and ethnicity) as person variables or as stimulus variables, using a between-groups design to examine multiple locations at an intersection, stratified random sampling and purposive sampling, and examining how measures demonstrate conceptual equivalence and measurement invariance across groups. We also focus on data-analytic methods, which include examination of multiple main effects and interactions, moderators in meta-analysis, multilevel modeling, moderated mediation, and person-centered methods. These methods are insufficient without also including intersectional interpretations and framing with attention to inequalities and power relations.
Minority stress, which includes discrimination as well as internalized negative attitudes, is an important factor associated with maladaptive health behaviors such as binge eating among sexual minority individuals. In addition, body shame and social anxiety are robust predictors of binge eating. We examined social anxiety and body shame as sequential mediators of the association between minority stress and binge eating among young adult lesbian women. We hypothesized that social anxiety would be a key factor linking minority stress to body shame and binge eating. Self-identified lesbian women (N = 496) completed online measures of minority stress, social anxiety, body shame, and binge eating. Structural equation modeling supported the hypothesized model. Discrimination and proximal sexual minority stress were associated with increased social anxiety. In turn, social anxiety was associated with more body shame, and body shame was related to binge eating. Results suggest the oppressive social environments created by the experience of minority stress may have adverse consequences for lesbian women’s body satisfaction and eating behaviors. Interventions that bolster coping with sexual minority stress and focus on reducing social anxiety, in addition to targeting eating behavior directly, may be particularly useful for lesbian women with eating disorders or binge eating.
During the past 30 years, women’s participation in the workforce, in athletics, and in professional education has increased, while men’s activities have been more stable. Have gender stereotypes changed over this time period to reflect the new realities? And, to what extent does gender stereotyping exist today? We address these questions by comparing data collected in the early 1980s to new data collected in 2014. In each study, participants rated the likelihood that a typical man or woman has a set of gendered characteristics (traits, role behaviors, occupations, and physical characteristics). Results indicate that people perceive strong differences between men and women on stereotype components today, as they did in the past. Comparisons between the two time periods show stability of gender stereotypes across all components except female gender roles, which showed a significant increase in gender stereotyping. These results attest to the durability of basic stereotypes about how men and women are perceived to differ, despite changes in the participation and acceptance of women and men in nontraditional domains. Because gender stereotypes are apparently so deeply embedded in our society, those in a position to evaluate women and men, as well as women and men themselves, need to be constantly vigilant to the possible influence of stereotypes on their judgments, choices, and actions.
Powerful stereotypes exist about how female rape victims should act. For example, victims are expected to physically resist their attacker and immediately report their assault. In reality, some victims are too shocked to physically resist or too traumatized to immediately go to police. Nevertheless, counterstereotypic-victim behavior can undermine fair prosecution outcomes, especially for acquaintance-rape victims. In the current research, we examined the influence of perceivers’ cultural similarity to the perpetrator, and the stereotypicality of rape-victim behaviour, on victim and perpetrator blame, punishment severity, and guilt likelihood. We varied an acquaintance-rape scenario, to present stereotypical/counterstereotypical rape-victim behaviour, and the cultural similarity/dissimilarity of perpetrators to participants, who were White-Australian women and men, aged between 18 and 74 (N = 237). In the victim-stereotypic condition, reactions did not vary as a function of perpetrator-cultural similarity. However, in the counterstereotypic-victim condition, culturally similar (compared to culturally dissimilar) perpetrators were considered less guilty and less deserving of punishment. Moderated mediation indicated that the greater leniency shown towards culturally similar perpetrators was explained by increases in victim blame and decreases in perpetrator blame. To decrease bias when prosecuting rape perpetrators, we recommend challenging the selective use of counterstereotypic-victim behaviour to defend culturally similar perpetrators.
Science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM) stereotypic attribution bias (SSAB) is the tendency to spontaneously generate external attributions for men’s setbacks in STEM fields and to spontaneously make internal attributions for women’s setbacks in STEM fields. Among samples of undergraduate STEM students, STEM settings perceived as unwelcoming to women through self-report (Study 1) and a manipulation (Study 2) were shown to predict SSAB. Among undergraduate women, experiencing the negative treatment of other women in a science setting predicted SSAB, which was negatively correlated with feelings of belonging in STEM (Study 1) and with intentions to continue in STEM after graduation (Studies 1 and 2). Research materials (i.e., data, measures, materials, etc.) used in both studies will be made available upon request to either of first two authors. The results of our studies suggest that those interested in increasing retention of women in STEM majors should develop strategies designed to reduce internal attributions for women’s setbacks among women facing negative STEM environments and cultivate a more positive climate for women in STEM fields.
Intersectionality theorists and researchers suggest the importance of examining unique stereotypes associated with intersecting group identities. We focus on the unique stereotypes of Black women in the United States related to sexuality and motherhood. In an online experimental study, 435 undergraduates from a Northeastern U.S. university were randomly assigned to one of the four conditions in which they viewed a photograph and read a description of a target young woman. The target’s race (Black vs. White) and pregnancy status (pregnant vs. no pregnancy information) were varied. A Black female target (pregnant or not) was perceived more negatively on items related to historically rooted societal stereotypes about sexual activity, sexual risk, motherhood status, and socioeconomic status than was a White female target, but there were no differences on items unrelated to societal stereotypes. A Black target described as pregnant was also perceived as more likely to be a single mother and to need public assistance than was a White target described as pregnant. Current findings, along with evidence that societal stereotypes have damaging effects, underscore the importance of diversifying images of Black women and increasing awareness of how stereotypes affect perceptions of Black women. Findings also highlight the value of research employing intersectionality to understand stereotypes.
In the current study, I tested a gender-moderated process model to explain when members of one relatively privileged group are oriented toward collective action for the rights of a relatively disadvantaged group. My model integrated three factors—gender, collective guilt, and close cross-group friendships—to explain collective action. I expected that among women collective guilt would not directly increase collective action, but having more close friendships with members of a disadvantaged group, an other-focused experience, would override the self-focused experience of collective guilt, and redirect guilt toward collective action. I tested the predictions in the context of lesbian, gay, and bisexual (LGB) rights. The sample of 85 undergraduates who self-identified as straight was racially diverse and ranged from 17 to 41 years old. Participants reported collective guilt, the extent of close friendships with people who are LGB, and their willingness to engage in collective action for LGB rights. Among women who are straight, but not among straight men, close cross-group friendships mediated the relation between collective guilt and collective action. I discuss the moderating role of gender, implications for research, and limitations. I suggest that winning the hearts and minds of the relatively privileged in support of social change may require that activists and policy makers understand the psychological relationships those individuals have with the members of disadvantaged groups.
The current study draws on identity theory to explore mothers’ and fathers’ involvement in childcare. It examined the relationships between the salience and centrality of individuals’ parental and work-related identities and the extent to which they are involved in various forms of childcare. A sample of 148 couples with at least one child aged 6 years old or younger completed extensive questionnaires. As hypothesized, the salience and centrality of parental identities were positively related to mothers’ and fathers’ involvement in childcare. Moreover, maternal identity salience was negatively related to fathers’ hours of childcare and share of childcare tasks. Finally, work hours mediated the negative relationships between the centrality of work identities and time invested in childcare, and gender moderated this mediation effect. That is, the more central a mother’s work identity, the more hours she worked for pay and the fewer hours she invested in childcare. These findings shed light on the role of parental identities in guiding behavioral choices and attest to the importance of distinguishing between identity salience and centrality as two components of self-structure.
Violence against women is a widespread societal problem substantiated and perpetuated through inequities that operate within numerous levels of the society. Challenging and ending gender-based violence therefore requires addressing social structures that perpetuate gendered hierarchies and maintain women’s susceptibility to experiencing violence worldwide. The present study examines novel approaches taken by women in two different countries in the Global South, one in Nicaragua and another in Tanzania, to examine macro-level processes involved in land ownership in regions where owning land is a marker of dominance. Using data from 492 women, results from structural equation models and qualitative thematic analyses demonstrate significant links among women’s ownership of land, relationship power, and receipt of physical and psychological violence in both the countries. Collectively, the findings suggest that when women own land, they gain power within their relationships and are less likely to experience violence. Implications for theoretical conceptualizations of eradicating violence against women and practical interventions are discussed.
The purpose of our study was to use select constructs from objectification theory to investigate how society’s sexual objectification of female athletes is related to differences in body esteem and self-objectification among collegiate female athletes and non-athletes. Using a cross-sectional survey, we sampled three groups at a Division I National Collegiate Athletic Association university: 322 non-athletes, 58 athletes participating in sports that are considered more objectified, and 27 athletes participating in sports that are considered less objectified. Participants completed survey measures assessing body esteem (sexual attractiveness, weight concern, and physical condition), body surveillance, thin-ideal internalization, and body shame. As predicted, all athletes experienced better body esteem than non-athletes. Surprisingly, both more and less objectified athletes also reported lower rates of body surveillance than non-athletes. Other findings varied by grouping. Overall, study findings suggested that athletes in more objectified sports experience greater thin-ideal internalization, thereby enhancing body shame without increasing body surveillance or body image concerns. Researchers and interventionists should put more focus on sexual- and self-objectification of collegiate female athletes participating in the more objectified sports because their psychological and mental health risks appear to be associated with objectification and not necessarily poor body image.
The goals of the current study were to apply the construct of stereotype accuracy to the domain of college women’s perceptions of the effects of full-time maternal employment on children. Both accuracy/inaccuracy and positive/negative direction were examined. Participants were 1,259 college women who provided stereotyped projections about the effects of full-time employment on children’s IQ scores, formal achievement tests, school grades, and internalizing and externalizing behavior problems. Their stereotype effect sizes were compared to meta-analytic effect sizes used to estimate the "actual" effects of maternal employment on children. Individual differences in these stereotypes were also examined. Results indicate that, on average, college women overestimated the negative effects of full-time maternal employment on child outcomes, especially behavior problems. Significant variability in the direction and accuracy of the stereotypes was explained by individual characteristics such as gender ideology, extrinsic work values, and beliefs about the costs of maternal employment. Concerns are that college-educated young women may retreat from the labor force due to stereotypes about the effects of their future employment on children. Efforts by researchers, practitioners, and policy makers should be directed toward disseminating accurate information and dispelling myths about the likely impact of maternal employment on children’s development.
Marriage is a rite of passage in U.S. culture influenced by fairy-tale expectations presented in the media and perpetuated through gender role socialization. Our study tested endorsement of marriage myths and benevolent sexism as predictors of engaged heterosexual college women’s premarital relationship outcomes and psychological well-being. Women in heterosexual relationships (N = 99) completed an online questionnaire 6–12 months before their wedding. Results indicated endorsement of marriage myths predicted positive experiences, whereas benevolent sexism predicted negative experiences. However, several interactions indicated that women who rejected marriage myths but endorsed benevolent sexism showed more negative patterns including lower relationship satisfaction and confidence, lower educational expectations, and higher depression. Results are interpreted using self-discrepancy theory such that when actual and ideal experiences are congruent, higher relationship satisfaction and more positive well-being results, whereas discrepant actual–ideal experiences predict dissatisfaction and more negative well-being. These results have implications for counseling couples on holding realistic expectations for their romantic partners. Marriage counselors can advise couples about the potential negative consequences of endorsing benevolent sexism. Exposure of common myths or unrealistic expectations about one’s partner and relationship may decrease the real–ideal discrepancy and increase marital satisfaction, thus increasing the likelihood of relationship longevity.
Prior research documents that perceived peer norms are related to bystanders’ intentions and intervention behaviors in the context of sexual violence. Given the popularity of bystander intervention programming, it is important to know if variables like gender, race, or year in college impact intervention attitudes/behaviors or interact with perceived peer norms. Also relatively unexplored is the question of missed opportunities for intervention. For our final sample of 232 college students (66% female, 36% Black), screened by age, race, and missing data from an initial pool of 315 respondents, perceived peer norms supporting intervention positively predicted willingness to intervene against sexual violence (bystander intentions) but did not independently predict bystander behaviors or missed opportunities for intervention. Although women reported greater bystander intentions than did men, and Black participants reported more bystander behaviors than did White participants, gender, race, and year in college often interacted with peer norms and with each other in complex ways. Specifically, the predicted positive relationship between peer norms and bystander behaviors was observed only among Black students in at least their second year of college, and the predicted negative relationship between peer norms and missed opportunities was observed only for Black men. These nuances in factors that influence bystander actions have important implications for tailoring prevention tools on college campuses.
Predominantly low-income and African American women from the same community, HIV-infected (n = 100; HIV+) and uninfected (n = 42; HIV–), were assessed on reported gender roles in sexual and other close relationships—including levels of self-silencing, unmitigated communion, and sexual relationship power—at a single recent study visit during 2008–2012. Recent gender roles were investigated in relation to depressive symptoms and health-related quality of life assessed both at a single visit during 2008–2012 and averaged over semiannual visits (for depressive symptoms) and annual visits (for quality of life) occurring between 1994 and 2012. Compared to HIV– women, HIV+ women reported significantly higher levels of several aspects of self-silencing, unmitigated communion, and multi-year averaged depressive symptoms as well as lower levels of sexual relationship power and recent and multi-year averaged quality of life. For both HIV+ and HIV– women, higher self-silencing and unmitigated communion significantly related to recent or multi-year averaged higher depressive symptoms and lower quality of life. Intervention strategies designed to increase self-care and self-advocacy in the context of relationships could potentially minimize depressive symptoms and enhance quality of life in women with and at risk for HIV.
Self-sexualization refers to intentionally engaging in activities expressly to appear more sexually appealing. The purpose of our studies was to examine gender similarities and differences in how women and men conceptualize self-sexualization as well as introduce measures appropriate for large-scale data collection. In a qualitative study, we first established the existence of self-sexualization among women, although we were unable to document a similar construct among men. The Self-Sexualization Behavior Questionnaire for Women (SSBQ–W), developed over the course of three studies using samples from two small liberal arts colleges, demonstrated adequate internal consistency, stability, and construct validity. Discriminant validity for the SSBQ–W was demonstrated with the Surveillance subscale of the Objectified Body Consciousness Scale, the Sexualizing Behavior Scale, and the Enjoyment of Sexualization Scale. The SSBQ–W may especially be useful in addressing debates about the relationship of self-sexualization to sexual empowerment, agency, and oppression in young women. Additionally, our attempts to develop a parallel sound measure for men failed, and gender differences in item-by-item comparisons concluded that men are less likely to engage in specific self-sexualizing behaviors than women. These findings raise the possibility that self-sexualization is neither as meaningful nor as pervasive for men. In sum, our findings help to further refine how researchers and practitioners might best conceptualize self-sexualization, concluding that it is highly gendered activity that is largely confined to women and offering a measure for women that may promote further research.
There is evidence to suggest that body image dissatisfaction and depressive symptoms are related among lesbians and that the strength of this relationship may be influenced by individuals’ sense of belonging to the lesbian community at each of the three layers: broad, organizational, and friendship. The broad layer provides an overarching ideology and, within this layer, individuals may not have direct contact with each other. The organizational layer is represented by groups, organizations, or activities, which exist to bring together lesbians who have a shared interest or proximity, such as lesbian support, social, or interest groups. The friendship layer refers to one’s personal network of friends, and it provides general support and acceptance of oneself as a whole person. A sample of 162 self-identified Australian lesbians completed measures of body image satisfaction, depressive symptoms, and sense of belonging. Results demonstrated that sense of belonging to each layer moderated the body image dissatisfaction->depressive symptoms relationship such that the relationship weakens with increasingly higher levels of sense of belonging. Results further showed that high levels of sense of belonging to the organizational and friendship layers were particularly protective. Examining each layer of community simultaneously has shown the importance of more intimate relationships, in addition to the relationships at the broad layer. The results have significant implications for treatment interventions. Practitioners should consider ways to connect lesbians to these more intimate layers of community.
Within objectification theory research, sexual objectification is typically operationalized as interpersonal sexual objectification—being targets of body evaluation and unwanted sexual advances. We argue that women’s male partners’ pornography use could be integrated within objectification theory as another form of sexual objectification and negatively linked to women’s well-being. College women (N = 171) rated how often their current and previous male partners viewed pornography and whether pornography use bothered them. They also completed measures of objectification theory constructs, internalization of cultural beauty standards, relationship attachment, self-esteem, body appreciation, and negative affect. The extent to which women were bothered by partner pornography use was controlled in all analyses. Path analysis revealed that previous partners’ pornography use (a) directly predicted interpersonal sexual objectification, internalization, and eating disorder symptomatology and (b) indirectly predicted body surveillance and body shame through internalization. In hierarchical regressions, previous partners’ pornography use inversely predicted self-esteem and body appreciation and positively predicted relationship anxiety and negative affect. Current partners’ pornography use was not linked to any criterion. Researchers should more comprehensively examine partners’ pornography use in relation to women’s distress. Practitioners may consider exploring male partners’ pornography use in female clients’ relationship histories and its potential associations with their well-being when relevant to them. Additional online materials for this article are available to PWQ subscribers on PWQ's website at http://pwq.sagepub.com/supplemental.
To date, there has been limited empirical scrutiny of the correlates and consequences of day-to-day state body dissatisfaction fluctuations within naturalistic contexts. We used ecological momentary assessment (a form of naturalistic observation) to evaluate whether state body dissatisfaction was concurrently and/or prospectively associated with occurrence and quality of social interactions. Women (N = 121), aged 18 to 40, completed a brief trait-based survey and then nominated a 7-day period within which to receive seven text messages daily, at random intervals, prompting them to complete measures of body dissatisfaction at that moment. If they were currently or had recently engaged in social interactions, they were also asked to fill out questions rating the quality of these interactions (operationalized in terms of enjoyment of, and control in, the interaction). Findings suggest that the relationship between state body dissatisfaction and aspects of social interactions is complex and may vary over time. Cross-sectionally, state body dissatisfaction and social interaction quality were negatively associated. Prospectively, however, body dissatisfaction predicted subsequent avoidance of social interactions. Interestingly, when women chose to avoid social interactions, their body dissatisfaction worsened, yet when they did engage in social interactions, they reported improved body satisfaction. Importantly, the links between state body dissatisfaction and social interactions may be moderated by body mass index and trait body satisfaction levels. Potential mechanisms underlying the association between state body dissatisfaction and quality and quantity of social interactions are discussed, and future research avenues are proposed to further understand their inter-relation.
Our study examined how two sexual minority stressors (internalized homophobia and social constraints in talking with others about one’s minority sexual identity) are related to psychological aggression (PA) in lesbian women’s relationships. PA includes a range of methods to hurt, coerce, control, and intimidate intimate partners. Rumination (i.e., brooding about one’s self and life situation) and relationship satisfaction were examined as potential mediating variables. Self-identified lesbian women in a same-sex relationship (N = 220) were recruited from a market research firm’s online panel. Participants completed measures of internalized homophobia, social constraints, rumination, relationship satisfaction, and frequency of past year PA victimization and perpetration. Internalized homophobia and social constraints in talking to friends about sexual identity yielded a positive indirect link with PA via a sequential path through rumination and relationship satisfaction. There was an additional indirect positive association of minority stressors with PA via a unique path through rumination. These results demonstrate the importance of continued efforts toward reducing minority stress, where possible, as well as enhancing coping. Given the importance of rumination and relationship satisfaction in the link between minority stressors and PA, it is imperative to improve adaptive coping responses to sexual minority stressors. Development and validation of individual- and couples-based interventions that address coping with sexual minority stressors using methods that decrease rumination and brooding and increase relationship satisfaction are certainly warranted.
Research suggests that posture exerts powerful affective and cognitive influences, although recent studies have indicated that these embodiment effects are moderated by gender. We examined two sociocultural factors that may contribute to the effects of postural feedback in women: self-objectification and power. Across a 2 x 2 x 2 between-subjects design, 80 female undergraduates completed various cognitive tasks and self-report measures after having been in an upright or slouched posture, seated in either a (powerful) throne or child’s chair, and wearing either a formfitting (objectifying) tank top or loose sweatshirt. The results showed that posture had the predicted influence on mood, with those seated upright reporting more positive mood than those seated in a slouched position. For the cognitive tasks, our findings were more complex and, due to low power, are best considered preliminary. Participants who were seated upright in a child’s chair while wearing a sweatshirt attempted the highest number of math items compared to those in the other conditions, supporting our prediction that postural benefits would be greatest in a context where power cues were gender-appropriate and self-objectification effects were attenuated. On a measure of satisfaction with performance, our findings suggest that self-objectification outweighed the power manipulation, leading to poorer outcomes when a seated position emphasized sexualized features of the body. Taken together, our results suggest that embodiment effects appear to be impacted by contextual cues, perhaps particularly for women.
Low levels of global self-esteem have been shown to be associated with disordered eating such that individuals who possess more negative attitudes about themselves tend to report more disordered eating symptoms. The purpose of the present study was to examine whether appearance-based contingent self-esteem (i.e., the degree to which individuals base their self-esteem on their physical appearance) and actual–ideal body image discrepancies influence this association. This goal was accomplished with a sample of 877 college women who completed measures of global self-esteem, body image, appearance-based contingent self-esteem, and eating behaviors. A moderated mediation analysis showed that actual–ideal body image discrepancies mediated the association between global self-esteem and disordered eating and that this simple mediation was further moderated by appearance-based contingent self-esteem. Discussion focuses on the implications of these findings for the ways in which actual–ideal body image discrepancies and appearance-based contingent self-esteem influence the association between global self-esteem and disordered eating. Future research aimed at improving intervention and prevention of eating disorders should address the extent to which individuals base their self-worth on their appearance and consider whether reducing appearance-based contingencies of self-worth may protect individuals from developing patterns of disordered eating.
With the present study, I explore the function, meaning, and empowerment potential of masturbation for 765 American women. The sample was somewhat diverse, but primarily young (79% under 30), White (75%), educated (85% with at least a bachelor’s degree), and heterosexual (67%). Participants completed an online anonymous survey that included endorsement of various attitudes toward masturbation, reasons for masturbating, and emotions following masturbation. Two split-half exploratory factor analyses (followed by confirmatory factor analyses) indicated that women’s reasons for masturbating clustered into five main reasons: (a) sexual pleasure, (b) to learn about or better understand their bodies, (c) as a release, (d) to substitute for partner sex, and (e) general sexual dissatisfaction. Women’s feelings regarding their masturbation fell into three clusters: (a) shame, (b) sexual empowerment, and (c) fear that one is acting selfishly. Most women in my study did not feel ashamed about masturbating; instead, many women felt sexually empowered. A hierarchical multiple regression demonstrated that women were more likely to feel sexually empowered by the fact that they masturbate if they reported being more sexually efficacious, having higher genital self-image, and masturbating for sexual pleasure or to learn more about their bodies. Results lend support to the feminist theory that when women are able to focus on their own sexual pleasure or learning, without the concerns of pregnancy or pleasing a partner, they may feel sexually empowered.
Within American gender norms is the expectation that women should be modest. We argue that violating this "modesty norm" by boasting about one’s accomplishments causes women to experience uncomfortable situational arousal that leads to lower motivation for and performance on a self-promotion task. We hypothesized that such negative effects could be offset when an external source for their situational arousal was made available. To test hypotheses, 78 women students from a U.S. Northwestern university wrote a scholarship application essay to promote the merits of either the self (modesty norm violated) or another person as a letter of reference (modesty norm not violated). Half were randomly assigned to hear information about a (fake) subliminal noise generator in the room that might cause "discomfort" (misattribution available) and half were told nothing about the generator (normal condition: misattribution not available). Participants rated the task and 44 new naive participants judged how much scholarship money to award each essay. Results confirmed predictions: under normal conditions, violating the modesty norm led to decreased motivation and performance. However, those who violated the modesty norm with a misattribution source reported increased interest, adopted fewer performance-avoidance goals, perceived their own work to be of higher quality, and produced higher quality work. Results suggest that when a situation helps women to escape the discomfort of defying the modesty norm, self-promotion motivation and performance improve. Further implications for enhancing women’s academic and workplace experiences are discussed.
Social reactions to disclosures of sexual assault have significant effects on women’s postassault outcomes. The Social Reactions Questionnaire measures these reactions (as reported by survivors) and aggregates them into positive and negative scales. However, studies indicate that only some "negative" reactions have a negative valence for survivors, whereas others produce a mixed (positive and negative) valence. The current study compares a one-primary-factor model of negative reactions to a model with two primary factors that we have labeled "turning against" (TA) and "unsupportive acknowledgment" (UA). Results showed that although one primary factor was plausible, two primary factors provided a better fit to the data. To assess the discriminant validity of the two factors, we performed regressions predicting social support, psychological adjustment, and coping behaviors. Analyses supported the hypotheses that reactions of being turned against were related to social withdrawal, increased self-blame, and decreased sexual assertiveness, whereas reactions of UA were related to both adaptive and maladaptive coping. Against predictions, depression and posttraumatic stress disorder were more related to receiving UA than to receiving TA reactions. Implications for interventions and research are discussed. Importantly, almost all women (94%) in our sample received reactions that acknowledged that an assault occurred but failed to provide support, and this lack of support was associated with worse coping than even more hostile reactions such as being blamed or stigmatized. Therefore, there seems a great need for effective programs to train community members to respond to survivors with the kind of emotional and tangible support that promotes better outcomes.
Despite the frequency and negative consequences of stranger harassment, only a scant number of studies have explicitly examined stranger harassment and its consequences through the lens of objectification theory. The current study introduced and tested a mediation model in which women’s experiences of stranger harassment may lead to self-objectification, which in turn may lead to objectification of other people. To examine this model, undergraduate women (N = 501) completed measures of stranger harassment (including the verbal harassment and sexual pressure subscales of the Stranger Harassment Index), body surveillance, and objectification of other women and men. Consistent with hypotheses, significant positive correlations emerged among total stranger harassment, verbal harassment, sexual pressure, body surveillance, and other-objectification of women. Other-objectification of men showed a similar pattern of results, with the exception of being unrelated to total stranger harassment and sexual pressure. Consistent with the proposed model, body surveillance was a significant mediator of the relation between total stranger harassment and other-objectification of both women and men, as well as the relation between verbal harassment and other-objectification of both women and men. Theoretical and practical implications, as well as future directions for research on stranger harassment, are discussed.
Across two studies, we investigated the hypothesis that exposure to objectifying television in which women are shown as sexual objects increases the likelihood of harassing conduct. In both studies (Ns = 141; 120), male participants were exposed to one of the three TV clips in which women were portrayed (a) as sexual objects (objectifying TV), (b) in professional roles, or (c) excluded (a nature documentary). Study 1 showed that men exposed to objectifying TV reported greater proclivity to engage in sexual coercion and manifested more gender-harassing behavior than participants in the other conditions. Study 2 further demonstrated that exposure to objectifying TV increased participants’ conformity to masculine gender role norms, which, in turn, mediated the relation between experimental condition and gender harassment. Together, the two studies suggest that media content plays a central role in activating harassment-related social norms, which in turn encourage or inhibit harassing conduct.
Although blatant expressions of sexism in the American workforce appear on the decline, many researchers note that discrimination is not disappearing but is instead becoming more subtle and ambiguous. Drawing from Sue et al.’s construct of microaggressions, which examines manifestations of prejudice ranging from subtle to overt, the present research provides the first known empirical investigation of gender differences in third-party perceptions of microaggressions against women at work. Undergraduate women and men read vignettes describing interactions between male supervisors and female subordinates, which portrayed potentially discriminatory supervisor behavior, ranging in explicitness from subtle to blatant. Results indicate that although both men and women perceive differences in microaggression explicitness, women tend to detect greater discrimination than men, particularly when instances are subtle in nature. Both genders expect microaggressions to generate more negative work outcomes as explicitness increases. We discuss practical implications of our research, including the importance of raising awareness of workplace gender microaggressions, especially its most subtle forms, and of developing supporting programs to help observers of discrimination, who may be more likely to be women in cases of perceived microaggressions against women. Future research directions for addressing the broad range of discrimination facing working women today are also explored.
We investigate how selection policies—the rules defining access to a valued position—can act as situational cues signaling social identity threat or safety among women and men. College students took a logic test ostensibly determining their assignment to a position of leader or subordinate for a subsequent task. Study 1 showed that when only the test score determined the selection, women experienced more identity threat and performed worse than men. When the policy allowed the selection of women at a lower level of performance than men to promote diversity, men’s performance decreased compared to the merit condition, falling to the level of women’s performance and thus closing the gender gap. Study 2 replicated these findings and established that the meaning derived from selection practices affects candidates’ performance. A third policy that also preferentially selected women, but to correct for unequal treatment based on gender, leads to a reversed gender gap (i.e., women outperformed men). These findings suggest that structural features of test settings including selection practices can constrain individuals’ potential access to opportunities.
Our study investigated gender differences in the long-term effects of education, work experience, agentic personality traits, and number of children on career success (i.e., salary) in medicine. German male and female students (N = 99) were surveyed at a German medical school (T1) and 15 years later (T2). Women interrupted their careers for longer than men (d = .92). Men had a substantially higher income at T2 (d = 1.07). Career interruptions, agentic personality traits, and high school grades were significant predictors of salary for both sexes. High final grades at medical school were significantly and positively related to salary but only for men. Low final grades at medical school and number of children predicted the length of career interruptions. For women, number of children was significantly and positively related to career interruptions. For men, number of children was significantly but negatively related to career interruptions. The findings corroborate research from other occupational fields, showing that a discontinuous work history has a negative influence on career success and that human capital variables are better rewarded for men than for women.
In two multipart studies, we tested the effectiveness of an experiential learning-based intervention (Workshop Activity for Gender Equity Simulation–Academic [WAGES-Academic]) to reduce sexism endorsement. We randomly assigned undergraduates to either WAGES (n = 144) or one of two control conditions (n = 268): one where participants received the same information as WAGES but without experiential learning or another that included an experiential group activity but no gender equity information. WAGES participants (vs. both controls) reported less endorsement of sexist beliefs after completing the activity and/or at a follow-up 7–11 days later as measured by the Modern Sexism (Study 1), Neo-sexism (Study 2), Hostile Sexism (Study 2), and Gender-Specific System Justification (Studies 1 and 2) scales. Both studies demonstrated that these effects were attributable to WAGES providing more information, evoking less reactance, eliciting more empathy, and instilling more self-efficacy compared to the other conditions. Results suggest that programs to reduce sexist beliefs will be successful only insofar as they invite access to discussion in such a way that does not elicit defensive denial of the problem, create a context in which participants are readily able to empathize with other, and instill feelings of self-efficacy that one can address the problem.
In two studies, we examined how romantic attachment style relates to women’s sexism toward men. Specifically, we applied structural equation modeling and mediation analyses to the responses of over 500 self-reported heterosexual women. Study 1 included 229 women who answered questionnaires tapping attachment anxiety and avoidance, ambivalent sexism toward men, romanticism, and interpersonal trust. We conducted Study 2 as a replication, changing questionnaire order to gauge the robustness of results, using a new sample of 273 women. In general, women’s attachment anxiety predicted ambivalent sexism (both benevolence and hostility) toward men, whereas women’s attachment avoidance predicted univalent hostility (and lower benevolence) toward men. Romanticism mediated attachment style’s relationship to benevolence toward men, whereas lower interpersonal trust mediated attachment’s relationship to hostility toward men. The results suggest that, for women (as for men), sexist attitudes toward members of the other sex have roots in attachment style and associated worldviews. Better understanding of women’s ambivalence toward men in romantic relationships may help to inform marital therapy.
Our mixed-methods study advances understanding of pathways to offending for jailed women with and without mental illness. Life history interviews with 115 women from five U.S. states examined how onset of crime and delinquency varied based on mental health status and trauma exposure. Women in jails had high rates of mental health disorders, with a majority meeting lifetime diagnostic criteria for a serious mental illness (50%), posttraumatic stress disorder (51%), and/or substance use disorder (85%). Cox regression analyses were utilized to examine associations between life experiences and risk of engaging in specific criminalized behaviors. Serious mental illness was associated with substance use, running away as a teen, and drug offending. Substance use disorder was related to earlier onset of substance use and driving under the influence. Intimate partner violence increased women’s risks for property crimes, drug offending, and commercial sex work. Witnessing violence increased risks for property crimes, fighting, and use of weapons. Experiences of caregiver violence increased the risk of running away as a teen. Qualitative narratives were reviewed to provide insight into connections between women’s experiences and onset of criminal behavior. Findings demonstrate a need for gender-responsive and trauma-informed practices to address mental disorders and victimization among women offenders.
Although some research has examined men and women’s general attitudes toward women growing body hair, little research has engaged in a side-by-side examination of women’s imagined experiences of growing body hair with an experiential component of growing their own body hair. In the first of two studies, I asked a diverse community sample of women aged 18 to 59 to assess their impressions of women who grew body hair and to imagine their own, and others’, reactions to their hypothetical body hair growth. For the second study, I utilized response papers from 62 women from diverse backgrounds in an undergraduate women’s studies course, who grew their body hair for an assignment. Results showed overwhelming negativity toward women growing body hair in both studies, but they differed in perceptions of social control and individual agency. Women in Study 1, who merely imagined body hair growth, described it more nonchalantly and individualistically, citing personal choice and rarely acknowledging social pressures placed upon women even disgusted by other women’s body hair. Women in Study 2 regularly discussed unanticipated social pressures and norms, rarely discussed personal choice, and reported a constellation of difficulties, including homophobia, family and partner anger, and internalized disgust and "dirtiness." These results on a seemingly "trivial" subject nuance the "rhetoric of choice" debate within feminist theories of the body while also illustrating a vivid experiential assignment that delves into women’s personal values, relationships, and social norms. Implications for assessing and changing attitudes about women’s bodies—particularly "abject" or "othered" bodies—are discussed.
Women’s and men’s bodies and sexuality can be understood as socially situated and socially produced. This means they are affected by, and developed in relation to, patterned sociocultural meanings and representations. We aim here to understand a recently emergent, and potentially gendered, body practice—pubic hair removal—by examining the meanings people ascribe to pubic hair and its removal. Extending the widespread hairless bodily norm for Anglo/Western women, pubic hair removal is an apparently rapidly growing phenomenon. Men, too, are seemingly practicing pubic hair removal in significant numbers, raising the question of to what extent pubic hair removal should be understood as a gendered phenomenon. What we do not yet know is what people’s understandings and perceptions of pubic hair are, and how they make sense of its removal. Using a qualitative survey, the current study asked a series of questions about pubic hair and its removal, both in general and related to men’s and women’s bodies. In total, 67 participants (100% response rate; 50 female; mean age 29, diverse ethnically, predominantly heterosexual) completed the survey. Thematic analysis identified five key themes in the way people made sense of pubic hair and pubic hair removal that related to choice, privacy, physical attractiveness, sexual impacts, and cleanliness. Meanings around pubic hair and its removal were not consistently gendered, but it was still situated as more of an issue for women. With potential impacts on sexual and psychological well-being, sexuality education provides an important venue for discussing, and questioning, normative ideas about pubic hair.
We utilize an additive intersectionality framework in the present study to examine the relations among perceived racism, sexism, and heterosexism and the psychological distress of self-identified sexual minority women of color. Participants (N = 134) aged 19 to 75 recruited through electronic mailing lists, discussion groups, and virtual communities aimed toward sexual minority women of color completed online surveys. When each form of discrimination was examined in a single multiple regression analysis, only perceived heterosexism explained significant and positive variance in psychological distress. In addition, collective action was tested as a moderator of the effects of racism, sexism, and heterosexism on psychological distress; specifically, the potential attenuating roles of three forms of collective action (race and ethnicity, feminist, and sexual minority) in the respective racism -> distress, sexism -> distress, and heterosexism -> distress links were investigated. Sexual minority collective action buffered the heterosexist experiences -> psychological distress link. More specifically, in the context of lower collective action, perceived heterosexism positively predicted distress; however, perceived heterosexism did not predict psychological distress at higher levels of collective action. No other significant interaction effects were found. Our results suggest that discrimination experiences continue to be important to assess in research and practice with marginalized individuals. Also, encouraging clients to engage in collective action could represent a useful intervention tool for counselors.
Strangulation is a unique and particularly gendered form of nonfatal intimate partner violence, affecting 10 times as many women as men. Medical research documents multiple negative health outcomes of such victimization, and in the past decade nearly 30 U.S. states have enacted laws making nonfatal strangulation a felony. We extended prior work by using grounded theory in a qualitative study to explore women’s experiences of, thoughts about, and reactions to being strangled. Each of the 17 mostly well-educated and African American domestic violence shelter residents had been strangled at least once by an intimate partner; most had survived multiple strangulations. Despite other severe abuse and a high level of fear, all were shocked that their partner strangled them. Participants reported an intense sense of vulnerability when they recognized during the assault how easily they could be killed by their partner. Nonetheless, they seemed to think of strangulation, not as a failed murder attempt, but as a way to exert power. Efforts to extricate themselves from a "choking" largely failed and resistance resulted in an escalation of the violence. Moreover, strangulation is difficult to detect which, as participants observed, makes it especially useful to the abuser. The aftereffects permeated the relationship such that strangulation need not be repeated in order for her to be compliant and submissive, thus creating a context of coercive control.
Our study investigated the importance of the lesbian community and the perceived fit of personal characteristics and behavior with the norms of this community as predictors of depression and anxiety among Young Sexual Minority Women (YSMW) aged 18–35 years. YSMW (n = 504) completed an online survey in which they reported their degree of identification with the lesbian community, described their sexual minority selves, and rated how far away these descriptions were from their own standards, as well as perceived lesbian community standards, for the person they ought to be and would ideally like to be. Consistent with self-discrepancy theory, falling short of both self and lesbian community ideal standards uniquely predicted depression whereas discrepancies from both ought standards related to anxiety. Furthermore, the links to lesbian community standards were moderated by identification with the lesbian community such that discrepancies from community ideal and ought standards were more strongly associated with negative affect among YSMW who more strongly identified with the lesbian community. Although based on correlational data, results suggest that YSMW perceive strict norms in lesbian communities that they may find difficult to live up to, and these discrepancies may have powerful consequences for experiences of depression and anxiety. Findings highlight the need for both additional research and therapeutic focus on intragroup sources of stress (e.g., normative pressures in sexual minority communities) in addition to intergroup sources of stress (e.g., heterosexism) in order to better our understanding of mental health experiences among sexual minority women.
Sexual objectification changes the way people view women by reducing them to sexual objects—denied humanity and an internal mental life, as well as deemed unworthy of moral concern. However, the subsequent consequences of sexually objectifying others remain underresearched. In the current study, we examined the impact of objectification in the domain of sexual assault. Sixty British undergraduate students were recruited to complete an impression formation task. We manipulated objectification by presenting participants with either a sexualized or nonsexualized woman. Participants rated the woman’s mind and the extent to which they felt moral concern for her. They then learned that she was the victim of an acquaintance rape and reported victim blame and both blatant and subtle perceptions of her suffering. Consistent with prior research, sexualized women were objectified through a denial of mental states and moral concern. Further, compared with nonobjectified women, the objectified were perceived to be more responsible for being raped. Interestingly, although no difference emerged for blatant measures of suffering, participants tacitly denied the victims’ suffering by exhibiting changes in moral concern for the victim. We conclude that objectification has important consequences for how people view victims of sexual assault. Our findings reveal that sexual objectification can have serious consequences and we discuss how these might influence how victims cope and recover from sexual assault.
In the current study, we investigated the relevance of women’s own and their romantic partners’ weight status to the development of weight concerns. Seventy-two female same-sex couples (n = 144 women) completed the Weight Concerns Scale and a researcher measured their height and weight to compute body mass index as a measure of weight status. Using the Actor–Partner Interdependence Model, which accounts for the dependency in these data, analyses revealed a significant link between women’s own weight status, their weight concerns, and their partners’ weight status and their weight concerns. Further, an interaction indicated that women who were heavier and who had thinner female partners were most at risk of experiencing weight concerns. These findings are discussed as evidence for the importance of partner comparisons in the context of romantic relationships and should inform research examining links between romantic relationships and health, particularly among sexual minority couples. Clinical implications of our research include the potential role of couples’ therapy in treating not only relationship problems but also potential health challenges.
This article describes and elaborates upon the theoretical model of the Mattering Map, initially introduced in Engendered Lives: A New Psychology of Women’s Experience (
In psychotherapeutic and lesbian popular culture literatures, there is an assumption that female same-sex couples are overly close and lack boundaries, a concept called "fusion." Empirical efforts have yet to demonstrate whether fusion is experienced more often among women in same-sex relationships than among men in same-sex relationships or among men and women in heterosexual relationships. Furthermore, research on the topic has yet to fully incorporate feminist perspectives that challenge assumptions that high levels of closeness in and of themselves are problematic. Our study employed measures of Inclusion of Other in Self (Aron, Aron, & Smollan, 1992) to examine the distribution of indicators of fusion among 76 women and 58 men in same-sex relationships and 1,221 women and 285 men in heterosexual relationships. Women in same-sex couples differed from the other groups on only one indicator of fusion—they were more likely to desire less closeness in their relationships, even though their current relationships were rated as close as other types of relationships. Our study suggests that widely held assumptions that women in same-sex couples experience and idealize pathologically high closeness are not accurate.
The emergence of heterosexual intimate relationship experiences has been described as central to the development of ambivalent sexist attitudes during adolescence. The quality of these relationships might be largely determined by the perceived attractiveness and expectancies about potential partners also in ideological terms. In a questionnaire study, 262 Spanish adolescents reported their attraction toward various sexist (hostile, benevolent, and ambivalent) and non-sexist profiles of other-sex targets as potential friends and intimate partners. Relationships between attraction judgments and participants' own sexist beliefs as well as their experiences in romantic relationships were examined. Results show that young women considered benevolent sexist young men to be most attractive and young men considered ambivalent sexist young women to be most attractive. Congruency effects were found between these preferences and participants’ own sexist attitudes. In addition, young women’s experiences in romantic relationships significantly predicted their preference for benevolent sexist young men. Discussion focuses on the importance of socialization in the development of such preferences and on the endorsement of benevolent sexism in female and male adolescents. More generally, theoretical and applied implications of these results in relation to ambivalent sexism theory are discussed.
Although the negative ramifications of others objectifying the female body are well established, little research has examined whether certain portrayals of women are more susceptible to being objectified. The present study sought to examine the effect of two target characteristics—body size and clothing style—on objectification. One hundred and ninety-one Australian undergraduate participants (95 female; Mage = 19.35 years) viewed either an image of an overweight woman or a thin woman, who was either dressed in plain clothes or lingerie. Participants then completed three tasks measuring their objectification of the woman to include attributions of mind, attributions of moral status, and a dot probe task assessing attention towards the target’s body relative to the face. Results indicate that overweight women, as well as those dressed in plain clothing, were attributed more agentic mental states and moral value, as well as elicited less of the objectifying gaze, than thin targets and those wearing lingerie. These findings suggest that contrary to popular opinion, there may be unforeseen benefits of being overweight.