Coresidence between emerging adults and parents is now common in the United States, but we know little about how coresidence influences daily experiences in these ties. Coresident (n = 62) and noncoresident (n = 97) emerging adults (aged 18–30) reported daily experiences with parents and mood for 7 days. During the study week, compared to offspring who lived apart from parents, coresident offspring were more likely to experience positive encounters, receive more support, wish parents would change, feel irritated, and report that their parents got on their nerves. Coresident offspring did not differ from noncoresident offspring with regard to stressful thoughts. Stressful thoughts about parents were associated with more negative daily mood; this effect did not differ for coresident and noncoresident offspring. Findings are discussed with regard to intergenerational ambivalence. In sum, coresident emerging adults were more involved with parents but not more affected by daily experiences with parents.
Daily covariation of three sleep indicators (quantity, quality, postsleep restedness), anxiety symptoms, and caffeine and alcohol consumption was observed in 283 emerging adults (M age = 19.9). Participants completed web-based sleep diary surveys every morning and evening for 7 consecutive days. Cross-lagged models suggested that sleep quality and restedness (reported each morning) predicted students’ anxiety levels (reported each evening) and that anxiety levels predicted all three sleep indicators. Furthermore, pre-bedtime caffeine consumption predicted worse sleep that night. Controlling for the effects of weekdays versus weekends produced virtually identical effects to the 7-day models, although weekend alcohol consumption emerged as a predictor of postsleep restedness. These data support bidirectionality between sleep and anxiety symptoms in emerging adults attending college/university and highlight potential avenues for intervention.
This study examines how romantic relationship patterns (i.e., based on the number of different partners and the number of years in a relationship) from adolescence to emerging adulthood (1) are associated with independence at age 25 and (2) are related to the characteristics of one’s romantic relationship and parental status at age 25. A sample of 274 youth (61.3% girls) identified their romantic partners each year between the ages of 16 and 24 and completed a series of questionnaires at age 25 concerning their level of independence and the characteristics of their current romantic relationship and parental status. Results show that patterns were associated with the pace at which youth accomplished tasks associated with emerging adulthood, in particular, gaining independence and becoming parents themselves. However, characteristics of the youth’s romantic relationships at age 25 did not vary as a function of these patterns.
Before reaching adulthood, one third of all youth in the United States will reside in a stepfamily household—a familial context marked by distinct challenges. Relatively few studies have explored family processes that promote youth adjustment in stepfamilies, and even fewer studies have examined these links across adolescence, emerging adulthood, and beyond. To address these gaps, we use a nationally representative sample of 758 adolescent stepchildren to examine the concurrent and long-term influence of mother–child, stepfather–child, nonresident father–child, and stepcouple relationship quality on stepchildren’s depression across three stages of development: adolescence, emerging adulthood, and young adulthood. Results from longitudinal structural equation modeling indicate that higher quality mother–child and stepfather–child relationships are directly associated with reductions in depression during adolescence and indirectly associated with reductions in depression during emerging and young adulthood via prior levels of depression; higher quality stepcouple relationships are directly associated with reductions in depression during emerging and young adulthood.
Early adulthood is a critical period during which real-world adjustment sets the stage for lifelong well-being. However, little is known about how the emotional quality of parental relationships may help or hinder adjustment. This longitudinal study investigated (a) changes in mother and father emotional support and psychological control during early adulthood, (b) whether such changes predicted young adults’ educational and occupational adjustment, and (c) whether these associations occurred indirectly through young adults’ depressive and anxiety symptoms. Participants were 240 youth assessed at four time points over a 6-year period. Multilevel modeling showed that on average, parental emotional support increased and psychological control decreased over time. Latent growth curve mediation analyses revealed significant direct associations between parental emotional support and psychological control and adjustment outcomes as well as indirect effects through mental health symptoms. Findings particularly highlight the negative effects of parental psychological control on young adults’ academic and occupational adjustment.
Although peer crowd affiliations have been studied extensively in adolescence, less is known about the crowd structure of emerging adults. The current study tested whether college students’ self-reported crowd affiliations were uniquely associated with a broad range of adjustment indices. Participants were 588 emerging adults at a small liberal arts college in the Western United States (Mage = 20.07, SD = 1.34; range = 18–26; 411 women). Exploratory factor analysis revealed that the peer crowds examined were best described by four underlying crowd dimensions (i.e., social, athletic, scholastic, and counterculture). Regression analyses showed that scholastic and athletic affiliations predicted social–emotional adjustment and low-risk-related behaviors. Social and counterculture identification predicted risk-related behaviors. However, while social affiliation predicted social–emotional adjustment, affiliation with the counterculture crowd predicted high levels of loneliness and low belongingness. The results highlight the importance of crowd affiliations in emerging adulthood and their implications for college students’ adjustment.
This study examined how family socioeconomic status and social emotional climate together with neighborhood affluence predict the probability that college attainment in emerging adulthood (20–26 years old) matched college expectations reported during adolescence. Using three waves of data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent and Adult Health (n = 7,213, 54% female, 53% White, 21% Black, 15% Hispanic, 11% other), results from multilevel multinomial logistic models reported direct and positive effects of neighborhood and family affluence on the probability that college attainment in emerging adulthood matched or exceeded the expectations reported during adolescence. Family cohesion was associated with lower odds of overachievement. An interaction effect revealed that parents’ educational expectations were more strongly associated with college achievement outcomes in higher income families. Understanding how families and neighborhoods predict college achievement can help institutions focus on methods of intervention to best support the transition to adulthood.
With a recent sample of emerging adults, the present longitudinal study examines multiple role trajectories that emerging adult women and men in the United States tend to traverse between the ages of 18 and 25, thereby partially replicating and furthering the work of Amato et al. Furthermore, the present study examines the physical and mental health of emerging adults in various trajectories. Findings revealed three trajectories for emerging adult women, including (1) work and school to some family formation (56.2% of women), (2) school to family formation (11.5% of women), and (3) some school to early family formation (32.3% of women). Women who transitioned from (3) some school to early family formation were more psychologically distressed than those who transitioned from (1) work and school to some family formation. Women who transitioned from (3) some school to early family formation also experienced significant declines in physical health. For emerging adult men, findings revealed three trajectories, including (1) work and early family formation (9.4% of men), (2) school to family formation (32.1% of men), and (3) school to work (58.5% of men). Men in the (2) school to family formation trajectory experienced less psychological distress over time. These findings point to certain trajectories that might be particularly beneficial for emerging adults’ physical and psychological health.
Studies focusing on emerging adulthood suggest that young adults from marginalized populations are more likely to assume adult roles earlier or struggle to assume adult roles altogether, both of which increase the likelihood of a challenging transition to adulthood. Demographic profiles of young adults do not simultaneously consider multiple marginalized identities. This study examines how the transition into key adult statuses differs by the intersections of social statuses. We use data from the American Community Survey 2010 to provide population estimates of rates of young adults, ages 18–35, reaching five key adult role statuses (completing school, joining the labor force, establishing independent homes, marriage, or parenting) by race or immigration status, gender, and poverty status. Our analyses reveal complex patterns in the adoption of adult role statuses. The general trends suggest that nonpoor young adults "become adults" at increasingly higher rates than poor young adults throughout the transition period.
The present study examined the longitudinal associations among familism respect and obligations values, ethnic centrality and private regard, and ethnic self-identification. Data were drawn from a socioeconomically diverse sample of Latino students attending a predominantly White university. The selection of a White label was associated with less positive private regard, less ethnic centrality, and less strong endorsement of familism respect and obligation values at the start of the academic year compared to those students who selected a national origin label. There was a complex relationship between ethnic identity and familism values over time. Ethnic centrality supported the growth in familism respect values across time, but familism respect values also predicted later growth in ethnic private regard. Our results highlight the fact that ethnic identity processes and familial cultural values can mutually influence each other in emerging adulthood for Latinos.
Using a unique sample of individuals who have and have not attended college, the present mixed-methods study examined narratives of 113 (47% women) emerging adults’ motivations for initiating breakups with romantic partners. Findings indicated that emerging adults’ motivations for ending their romantic relationships were largely due to their relationships and/or their romantic partners not fulfilling their needs for interdependence. Additionally, unmet intimacy, identity, and autonomy needs were the most frequently reported reasons for relationship termination, indicating that emerging adults consider both their need to be close with others and their need to follow their own paths for their careers and desires for family formation. This study also demonstrated links between perceptions of developmental tasks in emerging adulthood and motivations for ending romantic relationships. Those who end romantic relationships due to unfulfilled intimacy needs tend to be more relationally focused, and those who end romantic relationships due to unfulfilled autonomy or identity needs tend to view emerging adulthood as a time of experimentation/possibilities, feeling "in between," and negativity/instability. Implications for the role of relationship dissolution in emerging adult development are discussed.
Research has shown that university students are at increased risk of developing depression and related symptoms. The goal of the present study was to examine whether academic experiences relate to depressive symptoms in emerging adults, over and above a set of established depression risk factors. Participants (N = 903), ages 18–25 years, completed a series of questionnaires about risk factors for depression, academic experiences, and depressive symptoms. Results of a hierarchical multiple regression model showed that features of the academic experience were associated with depressive symptoms, over and above the effects of established risk factors. In particular, perceived academic stress, disengagement from studies, and loneliness at university were significant predictors of depressive symptoms. This research highlights the role of subjective academic experiences as potential risk factors for depressive symptoms in university students.
We applied a novel framework to identity development, capturing both content and process, and personal and cultural components of identity in the content domain of gender. We examined master (and alternative) narratives: ubiquitous, powerful cultural stories with which individuals negotiate in constructing personal identity. Study 1 was a quantitative investigation of personal narratives about gender (n = 245); Study 2 was a qualitative study of discourse processes concerning gender roles (n = 12). Employing three approaches to identity development (status, narrative, and discursive) in a mixed methods design, we found that most individuals position themselves around a newer, alternative narrative about gender equality. However, in social interactions, this narrative got less airtime, in favor of narratives representing either traditional views or gender equality. Further, those who were exploring their identities were more likely to employ the less traditional narrative, suggesting a link between changing master narratives and personal identity exploration.
This study examined differences in how African American and European American participants (N = 553) recalled feeling when their parents engaged in punitive and minimizing emotion socialization practices during childhood. We conducted this study to replicate and extend previous empirical work by using a more generalizable sample containing both male and female participants and by asking participants to report separately on their mothers and fathers. Results indicated that African American participants reported feeling less hurt and ashamed than European American participants when their mothers and fathers engaged in punitive and minimizing practices. African American participants also reported feeling more loved than European American participants when mothers engaged in punitive and minimizing practices. In addition, gender differences suggested that women feel more hurt and less loved than men when both mothers and fathers engaged in punitive and minimizing emotion socialization behaviors.
The last two decades have seen a rapid acceleration of research on personality development focusing on the periods of late adolescence and young adulthood. The findings paint a picture of surprising quiescence in adolescence followed by a period of tremendous growth and change in personality traits in young adulthood. The patterns and potential reasons for these changes are discussed in the context of the Neo-Socioanalytic model of personality and the theory of emerging adulthood. The potential for convergence and collaboration between the fields of personality development and emerging adulthood is discussed.
In this study, we aimed to examine whether and how presence of meaning and sources of meaning interact and contribute to the subjective well-being of emerging adults. Results from a cross-sectional survey of 251 Chinese community college students in Hong Kong revealed that presence of meaning was positively associated with life satisfaction and positive affect. The findings also showed that ascriptions to self-preoccupating and individualistic sources of meaning were associated with positive affect, while ascriptions to individualistic and self-transcendent sources of meaning were associated with life satisfaction. Furthermore, ascription to the individualistic source of meaning amplified the strength of a positive relationship between presence of meaning and life satisfaction. These findings can provide a knowledge base for initiating further research on how different components of meaning in life cooperate to affect emerging adults’ subjective well-being.
Five studies (N = 5,150) relying on an exhaustive procedure addressed whether volunteer bias (VB) exists in friendship research among emerging adults (EAs). Consistently, the studies showed that women are more willing than men to participate in research on same-sex best friendship (SSBF). Studies 2 through 5 showed that friendship duration is not related to volunteering. Studies 3 and 4 showed that the friendships of volunteers were higher in positive friendship experiences compared to nonvolunteers. Finally, Study 5 showed that a significant portion of nonvolunteers ended up participating in research on SSBF. VB in research on friendship is an artifact that presents a concern for the generalizability and validity of findings relative to the friendship experiences of EAs. Recruitment strategies that could alleviate this problem are discussed.
Using a multimethod approach, we examined relations between dating aggression and sleep in emerging adulthood. Participants were 108 dating couples from diverse ethnic and educational backgrounds (49% were cohabiting). Women and men self-reported on the frequency to which they perpetrated psychological and physical aggression toward their partners. Actigraphs were worn for seven consecutive nights and measured sleep duration, sleep efficiency, and long wake episodes. Participants also self-reported on their cognitive and somatic presleep arousal. After controlling for many covariates, actor–partner interdependence models revealed that women and men who perpetrated higher levels of aggression were at greater risk for disruption in many actigraphy and self-reported sleep domains. Partner effects also emerged and indicated that an individual’s perpetration of aggression related to greater disruption in their partner’s sleep. Findings build on this scant literature and demonstrate relations between a prevalent social stressor and a fundamental facet of emerging adults’ health.
The present study uses a two-phase mixed-methods design to explore the role of motivation to acculturate within the international student experience. Hierarchical regression analyses were conducted to test acculturation motivation (AM) as a predictor of international student adjustment and permanent residency intentions, over and above age, gender, academic year, and English competence. Greater motivation to acculturate was indeed a significant predictor of international student adjustment and increased intentions of pursuing permanent host country residency. To better understand how international students’ experiences relate to levels of AM, qualitative analyses were employed. International students with low levels of AM were more likely to express negative feelings about cross-cultural adjustment, university perception, and peer relationships, compared to students with high levels of AM. Despite such differences, academic and developmental struggles as well as academic successes were similarly voiced across both comparison groups.
Individuals can find a purpose or direction for life prior to reaching adulthood, with parental figures often functioning as scaffolds. However, research is lacking with respect to understanding whether purposeful emerging adults have more positive relationships with their parents. The current studies provide initial insights into this possibility using two university samples (N = 553). Study 1 demonstrated that emerging adults who report a higher sense of purpose tend to have more positive attachments to parental figures. Study 2 found that emerging adults with a higher sense of purpose also reported fewer difficulties with the separation–individuation process, which in turn partially explained why purposeful emerging adults report a greater sense of personal mastery. Results are discussed with respect to setting a foundation for future research.
This study examined the developmental pattern of male role attitudes and the within-person association of male role attitudes with self-esteem among college students. On four occasions across 3 years, 408 heterosexual college students (48% male; 28% Latino American, 32% African American, and 40% European American; mean age at Time 1 = 18.46 years) completed surveys. Multilevel models revealed that, although men’s male role attitudes became more traditional over the first 2 years of college and more flexible again toward the end, women’s male role attitudes remained unchanged over time. Moreover, within-person variation in male role attitudes was negatively linked to men’s, but not women’s, within-person variation in self-esteem. Findings highlight the importance of studying curvilinear changes in gender development and the adjustment implications of gender-related constructs for college-attending emerging adults.
Drinking motives are important proximal predictors of alcohol consumption in adolescents and emerging adults (EAs). Despite the importance of peer context on alcohol use decision-making, research on drinking motives is commonly divorced from the contexts where such decisions are made. Behavioral willingness (BW), or openness to engaging in a given behavior, is a contextually dependent aspect of nondeliberative decision-making for youth. As BW and drinking motives are proximal predictors of alcohol use, it was hypothesized that they would interact in the prediction of later drinking. Eighty-seven EAs reported their BW in simulated drinking contexts, drinking motives, and alcohol consumption upon entering college as well as drinking patterns 8 months later. Context-specific BW potentiated coping motives’ impact on increased alcohol consumption and potentially hazardous drinking at the end of participants’ first year. These findings support the importance of BW and context in understanding motivation’s role in drinking behavior for EAs.
This study used latent growth modeling to examine continuity and changes in depressed mood, predictors, and outcomes in a cohort of Norwegian adolescents followed from age 13 into adulthood age 30. First, the average development of depressed mood can be described by a slight increase in adolescence followed by a decrease in emerging adulthood. There were considerable individual differences in baseline level and rate of change in depressed mood, especially among females. Second, relationship with parents was associated with the stability component of depressed mood for both genders, as were father’s education for males. Third, a general trajectory of increasing levels of depressed mood was associated with lower probability of achievement of adulthood milestones and lower income and occupational status at age 30. Finally, both high levels of depressed mood at baseline and an increasing trajectory of depressed mood were associated with lower levels of life satisfaction at age 30.
The present article reviews three key issues regarding the emerging adult life stage—the ways in which emerging adulthood represents a key turning point in the life span (and the influences that help to determine the path that a given individual will follow), differences in the experience of emerging adulthood between college students and noncollege-attending individuals, and international diversity in the existence and manifestation of emerging adulthood. Within each of these areas, extant knowledge is reviewed and areas in need of further attention are specified. In particular, the social, economic, and cultural forces that shape emerging adulthood are discussed in terms of who is most (and least) likely to experience emerging adulthood and the ways in which the stage is likely to manifest itself. Recommendations for future theorizing and research are presented.
We examined whether the influence of adolescents’ sexual partnerships, both dating and casual, carried over to affect emerging adults’ relationship satisfaction and experiences of intimate partner aggression. Analyses of longitudinal data from the Toledo Adolescent Relationships Study (n = 294) showed that net of control variables (delinquency, depression, family violence, relational and sociodemographic characteristics), adolescents’ number of dating, but not casual, sexual partners led to greater odds of intimate partner aggression during emerging adulthood. Further, relationship churning (breaking-up and getting back together) and sexual nonexclusivity during emerging adulthood mediated the influence of adolescents’ number of dating sexual partnerships on intimate partner aggression. The positive effect of dating sexual partnerships on intimate partner aggression was stronger for women compared with men. These findings confirm the long reach of adolescent experiences into emerging adulthood.
To explore how emerging adults grapple with the increasing demands of fiscal responsibility, the present study tests a model of identity formation in the domain of finance. We draw on Erikson’s theory of identity formation as operationalized by Marcia’s identity status model, which details four identity statuses: achieved, foreclosed, moratorium, and diffused. A sample of college students (N = 1,511) were surveyed at two time points: in their first (ages 18–21, T1) and fourth (ages 21–24, T2) years of college. Primarily, we find evidence for financial identity stability, although we found some evidence for financial identity regression from moratorium to foreclosed status. After controlling for T1 financial identity, T1 variables were most predictive of changes in T2 foreclosure: Increases in foreclosure were predicted by measures of perceived parental socioeconomic status, parental communication, financial education, and subjective norms at T1.
The body of knowledge related to emerging adulthood has grown in the past decade. This study surveyed published empirical research studies on emerging adulthood, from 2000 to April 2015, using Academic Search Complete and PsycINFO databases and references from The Society for the Study of Emerging Adulthood website resources. These studies (N = 1,334) consisted of peer-reviewed journal articles reporting on empirical research. This study adds to the current knowledge base for the field of emerging adulthood by providing a critical examination of the main topics, the methods, current research trends, and the most prolific authors and publishing outlets in the field. Implications from these results support emerging adulthood as a global and cross-cultural developmental period and field of study. Additionally, results reveal current research trends and expose the need for significant future research to further expand the emerging adulthood knowledge base.
We examined whether emerging adults would engage in mobile phone use (MPU) when given the opportunity to socialize face-to-face with a close friend in a laboratory setting. Sixty-three U.S. college student friendship dyads rated their friendship quality in an online survey before coming into the laboratory together. When they arrived for their appointment, they were asked to wait together in a room for 5 min. A hidden camera recorded each dyad. Friends then separately rated the quality of the interaction. We coded time spent using mobile phone in seconds. A hierarchical regression conducted at the level of the dyad controlling for friendship quality and gender showed that more MPU was associated with lower quality interactions. We discuss findings in terms of the potential for MPU to interfere with the development of friendship intimacy.
The current study examines two developmental risk pathways (an academic/economic pathway and a delinquency/interpersonal pathway) linking cumulative socioeconomic adversity to subsequent depressive symptoms and the interplay between these pathways and depressive symptoms using path analysis with a sample of 14,563 respondents from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health over a 13-year period. Minority youth comprised 49% of this nationally representative sample, including 21% Blacks, 16% Hispanics, 6% Asians, 2% Native Americans, and 4% multiracial youth. Cumulative socioeconomic adversity appears to initiate an adverse life course process involving depressive symptoms, academic/economic difficulties, and delinquency/interpersonal incompetency. It appears that mediating life experiences partially explain the persistent influence of socioeconomic adversity and the continuity of depressive symptoms over the early life course. A deeper understanding of this dynamic process provides insight into the prevention of emotional problems in these early life stages.
In the present study we examined the role of identity content in relation to identity processes in a sample of college-going emerging adults (n = 255). Participants reported eight narratives each (n = 2,040 narratives) in response to prompts for specific identity content domains (occupation, values, politics, religion, family, romance, friends, and sex roles), and completed survey measures of identity exploration and commitment. Narratives were coded for content and meaning-making. In general, participants reported the content requested but were less likely to do so in certain domains (e.g., religion) than others (e.g., family). Identity processes varied by content domain, suggesting that identity contents may require different forms of processing. Results reveal the importance of examining identity content for a fuller understanding of identity development.
The heterosexual script describes the set of complementary but unequal roles for women and men to follow in their romantic and sexual interactions. The heterosexual script is comprised of the sexual double standard (men want sex and women set sexual limits), courtship strategies (men attract women with power and women attract men through beauty and sexiness), and commitment strategies (men avoid commitment and women prioritize relationships). Despite evidence that women and men are aware of this script, and it is prominent in the media, there is no existing measure of endorsement of the heterosexual script. In Studies 1 and 2, we develop and validate a measure of endorsement of the heterosexual script. In Study 3, we demonstrate that television consumption predicts stronger endorsement of the heterosexual script. We discuss the implications of endorsement of the heterosexual script for sexual health and provide suggestions for future research using this scale.
Lesbian, gay, and bisexual (LGB) individuals report higher levels of stressful interpersonal conflicts with others because of their divergence from heterosexual social norms. In a biopsychosocial model of minority stress, we tested diurnal cortisol slopes and internalized homonegativity (IH) as two potential mechanisms linking experiences of LGB-related stress to depression. The sample consisted of 27 lesbian and bisexual young women and 35 gay and bisexual young men (N = 62; age, 17–27, M = 21.34 years) from the greater metropolitan area of Montréal, Québec. We predicted that (a) LGB-related stress, IH, and diurnal cortisol slopes would be positively associated with each other and with depression; and (b) flatter diurnal cortisol slopes and/or greater IH would mediate the link between LGB-related stress and depression. LGB-related stress, diurnal cortisol slopes, and IH were positively associated with depression, and mediation analyses showed that diurnal cortisol slopes mediated the link between LGB-related stress and depression. These findings suggest that external stressors associated with being LGB can impact individuals’ physiological coping resources, thus affecting their psychological health.
While studies indicate that a growing number of emerging adults have difficulty meeting developmental challenges and, as a consequence, experience distress, the extent to which psychotherapy can help emerging adult clients cope with developmental tasks remains unexplored. This study examined the extent to which two core developmental capabilities of emerging adults—romantic competence and career adaptability—change during psychotherapy and the association between these changes and symptom change. Forty-six clients aged 21–31 (26 females; 56%) completed outcome measures and interviews regarding their romantic competence and career adaptability at the beginning and the end of psychodynamic psychotherapy. The mean duration of treatment was 26 sessions (SD = 6.88). Findings indicated that romantic competence and career adaptability increased significantly throughout treatment while symptoms decreased. Change in romantic competence was associated with change in symptoms. The findings suggest that therapy could be helpful in the pursuit of the core developmental tasks; and that improvement in romantic competence is associated with symptom relief.
Aversiveness of alcohol-related consequences varies across individuals and drinking occasions and predicts subsequent drinking behavior among college students. Grounded in social learning theory, the present study extends prior work by examining both within- and between-person predictors of aversiveness over 2 years. Participants (N = 676 college drinkers) completed a baseline survey and biweekly online assessments throughout freshman and sophomore years. Hierarchical linear models revealed that, within-person, higher aversiveness ratings were associated with assessment weeks characterized by less drinking, more negative consequences, fewer positive consequences, and less positive evaluations. Between-persons, higher aversiveness ratings were associated with female gender, more weekly negative consequences, and fewer weekly drinks across the study. High school drinking behavior and peer variables were not associated with aversiveness. There was little evidence for linear change in aversiveness over freshman or sophomore year. Findings add to our understanding of the psychology of alcohol-related consequences and their subjective evaluations during emerging adulthood.
Illicit stimulant use (e.g., MDMA, "ecstasy") constitutes a problem among emerging adults (EAs; 18–25 years old). Prescription stimulants are among the most frequently misused medications in this age-group with past year prevalence rates reported as high as 30% in predominantly student samples in the United States. We examined the association of stimulant use with four health risks reported in this age-group—risky alcohol use, other illicit drug use, sleep difficulties, and psychological distress. In a community sample of 1,938 student (n = 929) and nonstudent (n = 1009) EAs (mean age = 21.3; SD = 2.2; 52.7% males), 14.6% reported past month stimulant use; rates were 12.1% and 17.2% among students and nonstudents, respectively. Findings demonstrated a significant association between stimulant use and all four health risks among students and nonstudents EAs. The association between stimulant and opioid use was significantly weaker for students than for nonstudents. The connection between stimulant use and common health risks should be addressed in behavioral health and school settings.
Alcohol use is associated with impaired decision making and unwanted sexual outcomes, but emerging adults generally perceive the co-occurrence of alcohol use and sexual behavior positively. The current study examined perceived links between alcohol use and sexual experiences. Data were from 279 college students using stratified random sampling with replacement (56% female, 25% Hispanic/Latino, 22% African American, 28% Asian American/Pacific Islander, and 51% European American; M = 19.95 [0.43] years old). We coded participants’ responses to an open-ended question about how their alcohol use and sexual feelings were related. Students generally perceived that alcohol is facilitative of sex or has no effect. The most common responses were that alcohol leads to arousal and disinhibition. Almost no students mentioned alcohol’s impact on contraceptive use or sexual assault. Results differed by gender, prior sexual behavior, and heavy drinking. We interpret results in light of alcohol myopia theory and discuss implications for prevention.
The theory of emerging adulthood has been criticized as not applying across social classes. This article presents data from a national survey of 18- to 25-year-olds in order to test this critique. There were consistencies across social classes in the five features proposed in the theory of emerging adulthood: positive and negative perceptions of the time period; views of education and work; and views of love, sex, and marriage. Important social class differences were found in rates of feeling depressed and access to financial support for education. It is concluded that there are many commonalities in the experience of emerging adulthood across social classes in the United States and that emerging adulthood and other life stages can be useful guides to understanding development, provided that they are understood to be grounded in a social, cultural, and historical context.
Emerging adults (EAs) aged 18–24 account for a large proportion of all sexually transmitted infections (STIs), HIV infections, and unintended pregnancies in the United States. Given the increased influence of online media on decision making, we examined how EA online networks were associated with sexual risk behaviors. We used egocentric network data collected from EAs aged 18–24 years old across the United States (N = 1,687) to examine how online social norms (e.g., acceptance of HIV infections, other STIs, and pregnancy) and network characteristics (i.e., network size and density; ties’ closeness, race, age, and sex similarities) were associated with participants’ unprotected vaginal intercourse in the last 30 days. Findings suggested that in male EAs, there was a strong association between online social norms, structural characteristics, and sexual risk behavior compared to females. Researchers and practitioners may wish to address online peer norms and EAs’ online network composition when developing online sexual risk prevention tools.
The present study examined the achievement of work and romantic authorship in 100 Israeli emerging adults (54 men) who were followed from age 22 to 29. At the age of 29, participants were asked to talk about their current occupational and romantic statuses and the changes they underwent and to reflect on the meaning of these changes. Qualitative analyses of the interviews yielded four types of achieving work and romantic authorship: in both or either domain and in only work or only romantic authorship. These types were associated with different changes in goal pursuit and well-being over time and differed across gender. Analysis of our longitudinal data also showed that low self-efficacy combined with low maternal support measured 7 years earlier was associated with the lack of authorship in all domains. Yet, when low efficacy was combined with elevated paternal support, it predicted the achievement of work authorship.
Cardiovascular disease (CVD) continues to be the leading cause of death in America despite contributions from largely preventable, behaviorally based risk factors. Four of the primary behavioral risk factors are poor diet, physical inactivity, tobacco use, and alcohol abuse. These negative health behaviors are highly prevalent in American college students, a subgroup of emerging adults. Thus, this article aims to propose a new conceptual framework for understanding the need for prevention and intervention of CVD in emerging adults. Following a brief review of the recent literature on the prevalence and nature of these behaviors in college students, existing and potential interventions are discussed with the goal of identifying targets for CVD prevention in young adults. As emerging adults, college students are uniquely situated for behavior change, as their environment and life stage provide the ideal opportunity to reform negative and develop healthy behaviors that will reduce their risk for CVD development.
Relatively little is known about the pathways youth with autism spectrum disorders (ASDs) take in the transition to adulthood in terms of employment and postsecondary education (PSE). Applying life course sequence analysis to a nationally representative sample of youth with ASDs (N = 120), this study clustered various longitudinal sequences into three typical transition groups in the 6 years after high school exit: primarily focused on PSE (57.4%), continuously or increasingly disengaged (i.e., not employed nor in PSE, 29.0%), and primarily focused on employment (13.6%). All three groups experienced unique struggles in the transition to adulthood. We found variations in disproportionate transition patterns by gender, family income, functional cognitive skills, and conversational skills. Policy implications are discussed.
Identity and purpose in life can serve as internal assets during the transition to adulthood. Although these two facets of the self are closely linked, they are usually studied separately. The rare research that has considered identity and purpose together has focused exclusively on commitment in these domains, neglecting the process of exploration that often precedes commitment. The current study built on existing work by investigating identity and purpose as simultaneous predictors of subjective well-being in a sample of emerging adults (N = 850, M age = 19.96) and examining both commitment and exploration processes. In a structural equation model, purpose commitment emerged as the strongest predictor of well-being, significantly predicting greater life satisfaction and positive affect and lower negative affect. Findings are discussed with respect to strategies for promoting identity and purpose development during the transition to adulthood.
Emerging adulthood is an important period for self-development, and youth use online contexts for self-exploration and self-presentation. Using a multiple self-presentation framework, the present study examined emerging adults’ presentation of their real self, ideal self, and false self on Facebook, and the relation between their identity state, psychosocial well-being, and online self-presentation. Participants (N = 261; 66 males, 195 females M age 22) completed self-report measures of identity state, well-being, and self-presentation on Facebook. Respondents reported presenting their real self more than their ideal self and false self on Facebook. A path analysis suggested that emerging adults who reported having more coherent identity states also reported presenting their real self on Facebook to a greater extent. However, those with a less coherent sense of the self and lower self-esteem reported presenting their false self on Facebook to a greater extent. Implications for methodology and future directions are discussed.
The purpose of this phenomenological study was to explain and describe the perceptions of college-going, emerging adults who grew up in foster care (FC) regarding educational factors related to their journey to college. Thematic analysis of the narratives of 24 ethnically-diverse participants revealed academic barriers and academic supports unique to their status as young adults who lived in FC. The study introduces the Foster Youth Academic Achievement Model, a framework to help contextualize themes related to factors that serve as barriers and supports for this vulnerable yet resilient group.
The current study investigated perceptions of emerging adults (aged 18–25) and found indications that ratings of attributes ascribed to this group are more negative than ratings of older groups. An Internet sample ranging in age from 18 to 87 (N = 641) tended to have more positive feelings toward adults and older adults than emerging adults and adolescents. In particular, emerging adults were seen as more immoral, narcissistic, and overconfident than adults and less agreeable and emotionally stable. Participants generally rated today’s emerging adults as more self-centered, less hardworking, lazier, and promiscuous when compared to emerging adults of the past. Likewise, spontaneous descriptors of emerging adults were negative. A second sample of Mechanical Turk workers (N = 1,118) was used to evaluate how perceptions of different age groups compare to ratings of the average adult. In total, we found converging evidence for the existence of negative impressions about emerging adults.
The transition to college, which for the majority of youth coincides with the transition to emerging adulthood, is stressful and disruptive. Using latent growth curve modeling (LGM), this study examines the longitudinal course of psychosocial adjustment in a sample of 2,095 emerging adults, at three time-points across this transition: In the week prior to college entry and at the end of each semester of the first year. Overall, the immediate transition is characterized by steep declines in psychological well-being, cognitive-affective strengths, and social well-being as well as increases in psychological distress and cognitive-affective vulnerabilities. These setbacks generally plateau, but do not resolve, later in the year. Examining gender differences in developmental trajectories revealed that females experience additional elevations in psychological distress even after the immediate transition, while males evidenced worse baseline levels in cognitive-affective vulnerabilities, cognitive-affective strengths, and social well-being. These findings indicate the need for services that promote well-being across this challenging developmental transition.
This study examined sociocultural factors that impact dating and sexual experiences of heterosexual African American undergraduate college students attending a historically Black institution in the Southeastern United States. Specifically, mate availability and relationship involvement were analyzed to document students’ experiences, and how these influences may be associated with sexual decision making and behavior. Data from nine focus groups (N = 57) were aggregated and four subthemes were identified: competition among women, acceptability of mates, high prevalence of casual relationships, and lowered expectations for commitment. Power dynamics emerged as a contributing factor to the types of relationship involvement, sexual decision-making, and behavior among participants. The importance of prevention programs focusing on situational and cultural variables is highlighted. Additionally, implications for professionals working with emerging adults to consider the impact of the gender ratio imbalance, and perceived power distributions on perceptions of dating relationships, and sexual decision making and behavior are addressed.
We examine how aspects of community context (i.e., social and familial attachments, attachment to place, and economic environment) are linked to rural emerging adults’ educational and occupational experiences and aspirations. We use a year of qualitative interview data and 2 years of longitudinal survey data to explore how community context may shape two groups of rural emerging adults’ aspirations for those who remain in their rural home community posthigh school graduation and those who leave after high school to seek opportunities elsewhere. We found that the declining economic context of these rural communities shaped educational and occupational aspirations of both groups toward practically focused occupations. Interviewees struggled to balance their positive community attachments with the area’s lack of occupational opportunities. Our work uniquely underscores that analysis of community context may be a key to understanding emerging adults’ educational and occupational pathways and aspirations in economically strained rural environments.
Onset of most mental disorders occurs by the mid-20s, yet studies of mental health (MH) status are limited for younger adults (YAs) aged 18–25. The objectives were to determine YAs’ rates of MH and substance use (SU) disorders, treatment, and sociodemographic disparities. To determine relative vulnerability and unmet need, overall rates were compared between ages 18–25 and 26–34. Using the 2010 National Survey on Drug Use and Health (n = 25,216), we estimated past-year serious psychological distress, major depressive episode, alcohol and drug abuse/dependence, and treatment for both age groups and examined YA subgroup differences (gender, race/ethnicity, income, education, and insurance). YAs had higher prevalence of MH and SU disorders, but lower treatment rates than older adults. YA females had higher MH but lower SU disorder rates than males. Other sociodemographic disparities were noted. Efforts to improve YAs’ MH status are necessary to foster a successful transition to adulthood.
While many have studied the antecedents of homelessness and health status among the actively homeless, no studies have evaluated the long-term health outcomes of formerly homeless adolescents and young adults. In this article, we examine the prospective association of early homeless experience and health outcomes after homelessness has subsided and whether factors that impede successful life course transitions following homeless experiences (e.g., low education attainment, depressive symptoms) mediate these associations. Among 4,651 National Longitudinal Survey of Youth–Child Study participants, formerly homeless adolescents and young adults (aged 15–25) were at greater risk of developing asthma, health-limiting conditions (HLCs), and fair/poor self-rated health over 8 years of follow-up, particularly among females. Factors that disrupt life course transitions mediated associations for asthma and HLCs. Using 20 years of life course information, this study demonstrates the enduring health risks for adolescents and young adults with homeless experience as they age.
The present study used quantitative and qualitative methods to investigate contextual factors and motivations associated with emerging adults’ electronic aggression victimization and perpetration with friends and dating partners. Participants (N = 226) reported online about electronic aggression occurrence and motivations, family risk, support from friends, and emotion regulation. Males reported more victimization than perpetration overall, whereas females reported more victimization than perpetration only with friends. Jealousy/insecurity emerged as the most common motivation for electronic perpetration; second most common was humor for males and negative emotion for females. Overall, risky family environment was associated with electronic aggression; yet, support from friends and emotion regulation each moderated this association. Discussion addresses potential miscommunications that can occur in electronic communication and the need to look at the interplay between in-person and online interactions.
Most young adults today are following longer educational tracks and postpone entrance into the workforce. This 2-year study aimed to determine factors contributing to occupational self-efficacy in a representative sample of n = 1,891 young adults (M = 23.92, SD = 2.17 years) with different work statuses (studying, in an apprenticeship, employed, or unemployed). Occupational identity, perceived work quality, the ability to cope with work stress, and symptomatology were assessed. Path analyses revealed that work status was the most important predictor of later occupational self-efficacy, with employment showing the strongest prediction of later agency in the professional domain. Ruminative exploration, work stress, and internalizing symptoms contributed negatively to occupational self-efficacy, whereas commitment making and coping competence contributed positively to later agency in work and study. The discussion focuses on the early developmental roots of occupational self-efficacy.
This study examined links between parent psychological control and responses to interpersonal stress in emerging adulthood and whether temperament (i.e., behavioral inhibition [BI] and behavioral activation [BA]) moderated this association. A sample of 161 emerging adults (M age = 19.48, SD = 1.00) enrolled in a public university reported their perceptions of parent psychological control, responses to stress, and BI and BA. Results revealed that parent psychological control and temperament made both independent and interactive contributions to emerging adults’ responses to stress. Specifically, psychological control and BI were associated with maladaptive responses, whereas BA was associated with adaptive responses. In some cases, susceptibility to parent psychological control varied as a function of BI and BA. This study extends previous research with children and adolescents by demonstrating that parenting and temperament are associated with responses to stress in emerging adulthood.
This study identified longitudinal risk factors for body dissatisfaction (BD) over a 10-year period from adolescence to young adulthood. Participants (N = 2,134; age at baseline: M = 15.0, SD = 1.6 years) provided two waves of survey data. A six-step hierarchical linear regression analysis examined the predictive contribution of Time 1 BD, weight status, demographics, family and peer environmental factors, and psychological factors. Among females, Asian race/ethnicity, low self-esteem, greater BD, and higher body mass index (BMI) during adolescence contributed significantly to predicting greater BD at 10-year follow up (R2 = .27). Among males, demographics (i.e., Asian, other-mixed ethnicity, education attainment), depressive symptoms, greater BD, higher BMI, more parent communication, and less peer weight teasing during adolescence contributed to BD at follow-up (R2 = .27). Findings indicate who may be at greatest risk of BD in young adulthood and the types of factors that should be addressed during adolescence.
Research indicates making identity commitments on the part of emerging adults is associated with a wide range of psychosocial benefits. Data from a large research collaborative were used to evaluate hypotheses drawn from eudaimonic identity theory that the benefits of commitment are attributable to the quality of the commitments held. Findings from a study with 9,650 students attending 30 colleges and universities replicated previous research indicating the benefits of identity commitments with respect to subjective well-being, psychological well-being, self-esteem, an internal locus of control; and reduced likelihood of symptoms of general anxiety, social anxiety, and depression. However, when a measure of the quality of identity commitments was added to the analyses, results indicated that commitment quality accounted almost entirely for the associations of identity commitments with psychosocial functioning. Identity commitments of low quality were found to be associated with psychological costs rather than benefits. Implications for helping emerging adults distinguish better identity choices are discussed.
The present study investigated the developmental trajectories and the possible antecedents (e.g., gender, school track, academic achievement, self-esteem, parental affect, and monitoring) of 17- to 21-year-old young adults’ engagement in their studies and work. The study is part of the longitudinal Finnish Educational Transitions (FinEdu) study involving 804 participants. The results revealed four latent trajectory groups of study and work engagement: high increasing (72%), low increasing (14%), high decreasing (9%), and low stable (5%). High parental affect and high self-esteem among 16-year-old adolescents manifested themselves as an increase in engagement in studies and work during the transition to work or higher education in early adulthood. Moreover, a lower level of parental affect resulted in a decrease in subsequent engagement.
In Southern European countries, the number of emerging adults living with their parents is particularly high; however, the developmental and relational implications of this situation has not been yet systemically studied. Therefore, the present study aimed to (a) examine how emerging adult’s individuation process (i.e. conflictual, functional and financial independence) and the quality of parent–child relationship relationships (i.e. satisfaction and criticism) was related to emerging adult’s living arrangements and (b) investigate how the different individuation domains were associated with parent–child relationships and additionally test the moderation effect of living arrangements in this process. Four hundred and fifty-seven Portuguese emerging adults of age between 20 and 29 were assessed through self-report questionnaires. Results showed that living arrangements were associated with interpersonal forms of independence but were unrelated to the quality of parent–child relations. Moreover, distinct domains of individuation differently predicted parent–child relationships.
The majority of cyberbullying studies have examined middle and high school students. The purpose of the present study was to develop a multifactor cyberbullying victimization and perpetration survey for use with an emerging adult population. The initial 88-item preliminary survey (44 victimization and 44 perpetration items) was administered to 538 college students (421 females). Exploratory factor analyses revealed four-factor (i.e., malice, public humiliation, unwanted contact, and deception) victimization and perpetration scales. A confirmatory factor analysis was then performed on the Cyberbullying Experiences Survey (CES) factor structure with a separate sample of 638 college students (446 females). Results indicated a final 21-item victimization scale and 20-item perpetration scale consisting of the same four factors. The CES has adequate internal consistency and convergent validity with other measures of cyberbullying and Internet harassment and may provide a promising multifactor method of measuring cyberbullying victimization and perpetration.
This longitudinal study describes women’s media use during their first year of college and examines associations between media use and academic outcomes. Female students (N = 483, M age = 18.1 years) reported on their use of 11 media forms and their grade point average (GPA), academic behaviors, academic confidence, and problems affecting schoolwork. Allowing for multitasking, women reported nearly 12 hr of media use per day; use of texting, music, the Internet, and social networking was heaviest. In general, media use was negatively associated with academic outcomes after controlling for prior academics and demographics. Exceptions were newspaper reading and music listening, which were positively associated with academic outcomes. There were significant indirect effects of magazine reading and social networking on GPA via academic behaviors, confidence, and problems. Results show that female college students are heavy users of new media, and that some forms of media use may adversely impact academic performance.