Item response theory (IRT) is not widely used in counseling psychology research, despite its considerable advantages for instrument development. Focus groups help create a broad and representative item pool that is more likely to tap the full range of the latent dimension, thereby capitalizing on IRT strengths. We provide suggestions for using these tools, with an empirical example, the Everyday Multicultural Competencies/Revised Scale of Ethnocultural Empathy (EMC/RSEE). Rasch IRT methods were used to (a) analyze response format performance and collapse poorly performing categories, (b) evaluate differential item functioning sex bias, and (c) select items to maximize subscale sensitivity and bandwidth. Traditional classical test theory (CTT) subscales composed of items with the highest factor loadings were compared with subscales based on IRT criteria. Compared with CTT subscales, IRT subscales used in the EMC/RSEE demonstrated generally higher correlations with other variables of interest, and superior sensitivity to change over time and to group differences.
Sociocultural models of eating disorders emphasize the role of internalization of media standards of beauty in eating pathology but rarely examine (a) how racial and cultural factors may be related to women of color’s tendency to endorse Western media beauty ideals or (b) these women’s risk of developing body dissatisfaction and disordered eating issues. This study of Asian/Asian American women (N = 587) investigated the roles of perceived racial discrimination, ethnic identity, and racial/ethnic teasing in relation to self-esteem, internalization of Western standards of beauty, and body dissatisfaction as predictors of disordered eating in a structural model. Results indicated that, when controlling for body mass, perceived racial discrimination, ethnic identity, and racial/ethnic teasing significantly predicted disordered eating and its correlate variables through direct and indirect links. The findings suggest racial and cultural factors may complement sociocultural models in understanding disordered eating issues among Asian/Asian American women.
Given research suggesting that individuals in conservative religions experience conflict between religious beliefs and feelings of same-sex sexuality, this study explores the mental health impact of Mormon women who experience same-sex sexuality. Twenty-three Mormon women participated in semi-structured individual interviews about their experiences with same-sex sexuality. Interview questions asked about participants’ experiences with same-sex sexuality and the LDS Church (The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints), how this experience affected their mental health, and what types of mental health treatment they engaged in during their process of reconciliation. Data were analyzed following phenomenological methodology. Themes included the following: experiences with mood disorders, self-worth, suicidality, treatment attempts, reparative therapy, counselor’s agenda, impact of family and community, and mental health recovery. When treating women who experience conflict, counselors should assess self-worth, suicidality, and the level of community and familial support. Referral to group counseling can support self-acceptance of same-sex sexuality through normalization. Future research should examine specific practice interventions and explore impacts of other intersecting identities.
This study provides a content analysis of the past 12 years (2001-2012) of academic scholarship about atheism and atheist individuals from a social scientific lens in the United States. The content analysis yielded 100 articles across disciplines including psychology, sociology, religious studies, and political science. Although the number of articles about atheism published since 2001 has increased steadily per year (n = 0 in 2001 compared with n = 20 in 2012), the topics discussed in the atheism literature were narrow in scope and involved (a) comparing religious/spiritual (R/S) belief systems to atheism or (b) discussing bias against atheists. In addition, most of the articles were nonempirical (58%). Content analysis data suggest that atheism is an understudied topic in psychological science (31% of the total articles were from psychology), and discourse on atheism is often presented from cognitive and social-psychology perspectives, rather than a counseling psychology lens. Only a handful of the total articles centered on topics related to mental health (e.g., psychological distress and well-being) or counseling and training; however, such studies suggested that atheists have comparable levels of mental health to R/S people, a conclusion that contradicts most prior research on R/S and psychological well-being. Findings from this content analysis suggest that atheist individuals are an underserved and understudied group that would benefit from advancements in counseling psychology scholarship specific to their experiences.
Religion is a diversity factor that comprises a significant component of identity for many clients. However, little attention has been paid to religion in the context of group counseling, especially process-oriented, nonthemed groups with heterogeneous membership. Using multicultural, process-oriented, and social justice theories of groups, we demonstrate the myriad ways religion is relevant to and influential in group counseling work. Together, these theories provide a solid justification for the need to ethically and effectively attend to religion in group work. Furthermore, they provide a strong foundation for developing counseling expertise in this area by highlighting typical conflicts, group dynamics, and needs that arise when religion is addressed in groups. Based on our review, we provide practical and ethical implications to assist group leaders in addressing religion in their group counseling work.
The main purpose of this study was to examine client-rated appropriateness and preferences regarding the discussion of religious and spiritual concerns in group counseling. Participants were 164 group clients at nine university counseling centers nationwide. Clients volunteered to complete an online questionnaire about their experiences and opinions regarding religion and spirituality in group counseling. The majority of clients indicated that religious concerns are an appropriate topic for group counseling and reported a preference to discuss religious and spiritual concerns with their groups. Regression analyses examined predictors of client-rated (a) appropriateness of discussing religious concerns in group, (b) appropriateness of group leaders using religious or spiritual interventions, and (c) preferences for discussing religious and spiritual issues in group. The most consistent predictors of these ratings were client spirituality, client religious commitment, degree of spiritual struggles, and the frequency with which religion had already been discussed in the clients’ specific groups.
Two studies were conducted to revise and empirically test Ellis’s framework for inadequate and harmful supervision, and to determine the occurrence of inadequate and harmful clinical supervision from the supervisees’ perspective. For Study 1, we delineated 10 criteria for minimally adequate clinical supervision and defined inadequate and harmful supervision by differentiating self-identified and de facto supervision for each. Ratings from 34 supervision experts were used to generate a taxonomy of 16 de facto inadequate and 21 de facto harmful supervision descriptors. Because harmful supervision was distinct from yet subsumed by inadequate supervision: we revised the taxonomy and definitions accordingly. In Study 2, the occurrence of inadequate and harmful supervision was assessed for 363 supervisees; 93.0% were currently receiving inadequate supervision and 35.3% were currently receiving harmful supervision. Over half of the supervisees had received harmful clinical supervision at some point. Implications for research, training, and practice are discussed.
Multicultural scholars have long noted the value and the need to incorporate multicultural counseling practica into diversity-social justice training. This article describes an ongoing, systematic model of multicultural therapy practicum in which clinical psychology trainees provide direct psychotherapy to community-referred, culturally and linguistically diverse refugee clients, under culturally grounded supervision. As a university–community collaboration, this practicum embodies the principles of multicultural counseling competencies, social justice, community outreach and service, experiential learning, and trauma therapy. In this article, we describe the target refugee population, the theoretical/conceptual bases, the learning conditions, the organizational structure, and the evaluative research of this practicum. Next, we present a former trainee’s narrative account of working with a male Afghan refugee from an autoethnographic qualitative framework to illustrate the dynamic learning process and the intricate cross-cultural interactions between the client and therapist. Finally, implications of this practicum for future practice and research on experiential multicultural training are discussed.
This reaction to the major contribution (MC) "The Vocational Development of Offenders: Barriers, Interventions, and Implications for Social Justice" commends the authors for bringing an understudied and underdiscussed population to counseling psychologists. This reaction provides a contextual response to the MC in its entirety, as well as for the three articles comprising the MC. The authors are commended for educating readers about the complexities of correctional rehabilitation, emphasizing the role of work in the rehabilitation process to reduce criminal recidivism, and examining current vocational practices; however, this reaction provides practical suggestions for improving the integration of best correctional practices into vocational counseling, and provides suggestions for policy change. In addition, this reaction further emphasizes the necessity of counseling psychologists’ involvement in offender rehabilitation.
The vocational needs of offenders and ex-offenders have received little attention in the counseling psychology literature. The authors of this special issue have called attention to the importance of and possibilities associated with the development and implementation of vocational interventions for such populations. This reaction discusses the merits of the articles in this special issue, and proposes that in addition to focusing on developing effective interventions for offenders and ex-offenders, we must interrogate the U.S. prison enterprise with respect to goals, outcomes, and ultimately, social justice.
Guided by a Person x Context cultural framework, this is the first known study to examine the relationship between cultural values and mental health-related outcomes (depressive symptoms and professional psychological help seeking) across diverse interpersonal contexts. Using a quasi-experimental research design, 465 Asian international college students were randomly assigned to report their adherence to the Asian cultural values of emotional self-control and humility during interactions with (a) their families of origin, (b) peers from their country of origin, or (c) American peers. Humility was positively associated with depressive symptoms only during interactions with nonfamily members, and not with family members. Emotional self-control was negatively associated with attitudes toward seeking psychological help only during participants’ interactions with members of their country of origin. Humility was negatively related to psychological help seeking only during participants’ interactions with nonfamily members.
The present study examined whether ethnic identity cluster patterns, using Ethnic Identity Scale (EIS) subscale scores, moderated the relationship between perceived stress and depressive symptoms. Participants were 390 Latino adults from a moderately sized Midwestern city. Four ethnic identity cluster patterns were identified through cluster analysis: Achieved Positive, Diffuse Positive, Foreclosed Positive, and Diffuse Negative. Results from a moderated multiple regression analysis indicated a significant interaction effect of ethnic identity clusters (i.e., Achieved Positive vs. Diffuse Negative) and perceived stress on depressive symptoms. Specifically, at lower levels of stress, no significant difference was found; whereas, at higher levels of stress, individuals with Achieved Positive cluster patterns had significantly lower levels of depressive symptoms than individuals with Diffuse Negative cluster patterns. The findings are discussed within the context of ethnic identity theory and the implications for research and clinical conceptualizations.
We comment on the major contributions on applications of vocational psychology to criminal justice populations. All three articles present exciting directions for vocational psychology research and practice—directions that have exceptional resonance with the field’s commitment to social justice. We are intrigued by the authors’ use of social cognitive career theory (SCCT), along with the risks–need–responsivity model, as a theoretical platform for enhancing the vocational development of offenders. We suggest that this integrative effort may be aided by inclusion of a new SCCT process model of career development. We briefly summarize this process model and consider how it may be applied to interventions designed to promote vocational outcomes and reduce recidivism with criminal justice populations.
This study examined how parental ethnic socialization informed adolescents’ ethnic identity (EI) development and, in turn, youths’ psychosocial functioning (i.e., mental health, social competence, academic efficacy, externalizing behaviors) among 749 Mexican-origin families. In addition, school ethnic composition was examined as a moderator of these associations. Findings indicated that mothers’ and fathers’ ethnic socialization were significant longitudinal predictors of adolescents’ EI, although fathers’ ethnic socialization interacted significantly with youths’ school ethnic composition in fifth grade to influence EI in seventh grade. Furthermore, adolescents’ EI was significantly associated with increased academic self-efficacy and social competence, and decreased depressive symptoms and externalizing behaviors. Findings support theoretical predictions regarding the central role parents play in Mexican-origin adolescents’ normative developmental processes and adjustment and, importantly, underscore the need to consider variability that is introduced into these processes by features of the social context such as school ethnic composition.
In this study, the authors examined the contributions of physical functioning, acculturation, the Latino cultural value of familismo, and ethnic identity in predicting depressive symptoms in a community sample of Latino older adults. The participants were 98 Latino older adults, age 65 and older, from a moderately sized Midwestern city. Multiple regression analyses indicated that physical functioning, acculturation, familismo, and ethnic identity were significantly related to depressive symptoms. Due to the limited empirical research focused on ethnic identity among older adults, the construct of ethnic identity was closely examined in an effort to extend ethnic identity theory and research specific to Latino older adults. The findings are discussed within the context of ethnic identity theory and implications for research and practice.
The current article provides a framework for training professional school counselors based on contextual school counseling (CSC). This framework includes a competency-based approach to training using the clusters identified by the Council of Counseling Psychology Training Programs (CCPTP) working group on master’s-level professional psychology training—professionalism, relational, science, application, and systems. Foundational competencies for school counselors are proposed under each cluster, and the differences between clinical mental health competencies and school counseling competencies are emphasized and discussed. The proposed framework is followed by implications for counseling psychologists and counselor educators who train school counselors, and include supervision of school counselors-in-training, curriculum needs for school counselors-in-training, practice for school counselors, and suggestions for related future research.
Ethnic identity is theoretically linked to the psychological health of U.S. Latinas/os and has played a preeminent role in the limited literature focused on this group. However, research does not uniformly confirm a positive relationship between ethnic identity and psychological health among U.S. Latinas/os. Emerging work suggests that inconsistencies in the existing literature might be better understood if ethnic identity conceptualizations accounted for context and the developmental period under study. It also has been suggested that the narrow collection of methods and analytical tools used in ethnic identity research prevent a complete understanding of this construct. This article introduces the rationale for consideration of context, incorporation of a life span perspective, and expansion of methodological approaches in the study of U.S. Latina/o ethnic identity, describing the manner in which the four empirical studies in this major contribution illustrate these issues. The practice implications of current findings are summarized after offering suggestions for future research.
Despite their significant and growing demographic importance, U.S. Latina/o youth are rarely the focus of research and almost never studied from a perspective that reflects counseling psychologists’ emphases on social justice and the strengths of individuals. Such a perspective is likely to result in more effective approaches to the understanding and prevention of adverse outcomes and can expand the understanding of variables that have been traditionally used to study U.S. Latina/o youth. In this study, two specific asset variables—leadership and social responsibility—were used to test hypotheses about the role of biculturalism in adaptive psychological functioning among U.S. Latina/o youth. Results suggest that bicultural identity is meaningfully associated with asset variables, whereas bicultural involvement is not. Implications for research and practice are discussed.
This study investigated the relevance of both personal and familial aspects of perfectionism for Latino college students. The participants were 207 Latino college students (76% women, 24% men; M age = 21.13 years). Psychometric evaluations of the Almost Perfect Scale–Revised (APS-R) and Family Almost Perfect Scale (FAPS) provide promising support of their cultural validity for Latino students. Patterns of how personal and family dimensions of perfectionism associate with psychological measures of depressive symptoms, anxiety symptoms, and self-esteem generally replicated past studies with other cultural groups. Participants in the study were classified into three different types of perfectionists as well as three perceived types of perfectionistic families. These groups were compared on the psychological indicators of depression, anxiety, and self-esteem (2 = .06-.19). Counseling and cultural implications for Latino students with the focus on positive and negative aspects of perfectionism as well as future research directions were discussed.
This article, and the one that follows (Slaten & Baskin, Contextual School Counseling: A framework for training with implications for curriculum, supervision, practice, and future research), describe an approach to school counseling and an integrated new training framework, titled "Contextual School Counseling" (CSC). CSC is an approach where the contextual perspective of psychotherapy is understood, relied upon, and applied to activities by a counselor within the school environment. The use of CSC will help school counselors to focus on vulnerable and diverse populations. Furthermore, it will add cohesion to an ever-evolving profession whose members are currently trained in core counseling skills but would likely further benefit from an approach and training model with clearer links to the pre-K-12 context.
Suicide-related outcomes are a major public health challenge in communities of color in the United States. To address these challenges, this Major Contribution makes theoretical, empirical, and practice-related contributions to scholarship on suicide-related outcomes among people of color. In this article, the authors present a new framework to conceptualize previous suicidology scholarship, address existing literature gaps, and inform counseling psychologists’ future work on suicide-related outcomes in U.S. communities of color. The framework consists of three components and nine principles that highlight the types of constructs, populations, and preventive interventions that should be emphasized in theory, research, and practice addressing suicide-related outcomes in communities of color. The authors explain why suicide-related outcomes in communities of color deserve attention, describe the framework, and discuss implications of the framework for future practice and training. It is hoped that this framework can serve as a resource and impetus for new paradigms of suicidology work in communities of color.
The incidence and prevalence of death by suicide and nonlethal suicidal behaviors such as suicide attempts, thoughts, and feelings are increasing in the United States and throughout the world. Efforts to prevent suicide deaths and suicide attempts, and reduce the likelihood that suicidal thoughts and feelings will lead to those outcomes, rest on the accuracy of suicide risk assessments primarily conducted in the context of clinical interviews. Despite being armed with lists of empirically derived "correlates" of suicide (i.e., risk factors), suicide risk assessment continues to be a challenging task faced by counseling psychologists and other mental health professionals on a daily basis. As Shea (1999) has suggested, this challenge in a large part is a function of differing values and beliefs regarding suicide between the clinician and the client that create barriers to accurate assessment. The thesis of this contribution to the Major Contribution is that the barriers to suicide risk assessment are much broader than values and beliefs when in the context of cultural differences between the clinician and client. Thus, we present an argument for the adoption of a set of compatibility heuristics as a framework for suicide risk assessment in the cross-cultural suicide risk assessment environment.
This qualitative exploration examined how 14 gay- and lesbian-identified law enforcement officers managed career choice, satisfaction, and their intersecting sexual/vocational identities. Participants reported choosing the vocation for much the same reasons as others already mentioned in the literature, including service/duty to community, financial benefits, and family influences. Constraining and facilitating factors were discovered, shedding light on how participants managed their intersecting identities, and their influence on career satisfaction. These factors deepen the understanding of when participants shared their sexual identity with colleagues and to what impact within the career environment. The presence of homophobic microaggressions without institutional support to address the hostile environment significantly hampered job satisfaction and willingness to risk being out at work for some. Implications and suggestions for future research are discussed, including the findings’ usefulness for other quasimilitary vocational settings in the aftermath of the repeal of "Don’t ask, don’t tell" legislation in the military.
Two studies were conducted to investigate the Inventory of Therapist Work With Client Assets and Strengths (IT-WAS), a new measure constructed to assess the importance therapists place on incorporating strength-based approaches in their therapeutic work. In the first study, a combined sample (N = 225), comprising therapists in independent practice, graduate students and faculty in counseling-related fields, and counseling center staff at a large mid-Atlantic university was gathered to conduct an exploratory factor analysis. Results yielded three factors (Theory of Intervention, Assessment of Strengths, and Supporting Progress). The data also provided evidence for the IT-WAS’s internal consistency and validity, the latter being supported by correlations with measures of theoretically relevant constructs. In the second study, data from 31 counseling and clinical doctoral students provided evidence for the IT-WAS’s test–retest reliability over a 2-week period. Implications for clinical training and practice are discussed, and areas of future research are provided.
The purpose of this study was to investigate the impact of dating violence on adolescent girls’ educational experiences and relationships with peers, family members, and school personnel. We used a constructivist–interpretivist research paradigm and conducted semistructured interviews with 19 adolescent female participants who experienced abuse from a dating partner during the past year. Using grounded theory analytical methods, findings included identification of specific types of abuse girls experienced in different contexts, what strategies girls used to cope with the abuse, how girls made meaning of their abuse experiences, and the subsequent consequences of the abuse on girls’ health, relationships, self-concepts, and school experiences. Implications for school- and family-based interventions and dating violence research are provided.
This qualitative study explores the daily lived experiences of African American women (N = 10) who have survived child sexual abuse. The researchers used a phenomenological research tradition and a feminist framework for the study. Using semistructured interviews and integrating methods of trustworthiness, the researchers identified six themes in the data: (a) understanding traumatic symptoms, (b) externalizing racist and sexist stereotypes of African American women, (c) negotiating family relationships and accessing community support, (d) transforming religion and spirituality into sources of healing, (e) reclaiming sexuality, and (f) integrating multiple identities as a survivor. Implications for future research, practice, and advocacy with African American women survivors of child sexual abuse are described.
Vocational interventions for criminal justice populations have existed for years in various forms, but have traditionally not used an interdisciplinary approach and have shown significant limitations in effectiveness. This article informs scholars and practitioners of interdisciplinary research on vocational interventions and how knowledge from criminal justice literature and career theory can be combined so that relevant and effective theory-based vocational interventions for offenders and ex-offenders can be developed. Such an integrative approach would address the limitations of existing approaches and would foster the development of vocational interventions that go beyond what is offered currently. A model summarizing this integrative approach is provided. This article concludes by presenting understudied areas in offender career development, such as offenders’ willingness to work, illegal employment as a form of work, and the implications of a criminal record on career development. Continued research in these areas can promote effective rehabilitative efforts that meet the vocational needs of this marginalized population.
The prescriptive authority for psychologists (RxP) movement is controversial in its notion that properly trained licensed psychologists should be granted the right to prescribe psychotropic medication. Since its inception, the RxP movement has been successful in engendering prescriptive authority for psychologists practicing at both federal and state levels. For the past 20 years, the specialty of counseling psychology’s official position on prescriptive authority has been neutral. The author believes that renewed discourse is warranted. Therefore, the author will argue that counseling psychology practitioners should endorse the RxP movement, as prescriptive authority appeals to such unique facets of counseling psychology’s professional identity as holistic conceptualization of clients, a strengths-based approach to treatment, and a focus on social justice. The author also addresses concerns that may be preventing practitioners’ support, including the effectiveness of training programs for prescribing psychologists and the potential for prescriptive authority to dominate professional identity and practice.
The criminal justice population has experienced exponential growth in recent decades. Yet, counseling and vocational psychology has not kept pace in addressing the vocational needs of this population. A recent literature search in counseling and vocational journals found that in the last quarter century, only 14 articles have been published that focus on this topic. Among these, even fewer are focused on developing effective vocational interventions for this population. The articles in this major contribution endeavor to begin filling this gap by (a) demonstrating the need and applicability for applying counseling and vocational psychology in developing vocational interventions for the criminal justice population, (b) providing an example and initial empirical findings of a vocational intervention used with this population, and (c) informing readers of best practices in interdisciplinary research for theoretical integration to work with this population.
The purpose of this study was to adapt and experimentally test the effectiveness of a research-based, employment-focused group counseling intervention (OPTIONS). OPTIONS was designed to increase male inmates’ exploration and identification of employment interests and options, identification and development of employment-search skills, and knowledge of vocational options, goal planning, and identification and use of contextual supports. A randomized block design and measurements at pretest, posttest, and 1-month follow-up were used to examine the effects of OPTIONS. Participants included 77 (n = 38 treatment, n = 39 control) adult male inmates. Results indicated that OPTIONS participants had higher career search self-efficacy, problem solving, and hopefulness scores at posttest and follow-up than did treatment-as-usual control group participants.
The relations between type of sexual coercion (i.e., verbal, substance-facilitated, physical) and psychological and behavioral health were examined among Black (n = 107) and White (n = 114) young women. We also explored the moderating role of sexual stereotypes in understanding the relations between sexual coercion and health. Over half (53%) of the total sample reported experiencing at least one sexually coercive incident. Direct relations were found between sexual coercion type and psychological and behavioral health correlates. Specifically, for both Black and White young women, greater verbal coercion was related to increased risky sexual behaviors. Substance-facilitated sexual coercion was related to lower levels of two indicators of mental health among Black participants (i.e., psychological distress and self-esteem). Endorsement of sexual stereotypes moderated the relations between total sexual coercion experiences and self-esteem for Black young women and between total sexual coercion experiences and psychological distress for White young women.
Seventeen clinical supervisors were interviewed regarding their experience of providing difficult feedback in cross-ethnic/racial supervision, and their responses were analyzed using consensual qualitative research (CQR). European American supervisors described supervisees of color who had difficulty in their clinical work with culturally different clients. These supervisors then shared with supervisees their concern that supervisees’ interpersonal skills may negatively affect their clinical and/or supervision work. Supervisors of color described European American supervisees who exhibited insensitivity toward clients of color in session or during supervision. These supervisors shared their concern that supervisees’ lack of cultural sensitivity may negatively affect their clinical work. These contrasting feedback experiences had a profound effect on supervisory relationships and the processes within supervision.
The purpose of the article is to outline a comprehensive conceptual framework for life skills interventions by integrating aspects of Basic Needs Theory (BNT) and Life Development Intervention (LDI). In particular, we advocate the integration of (a) the three basic psychological needs of autonomy, competence, and relatedness and (b) the needs-supportive motivationalclimate from BNT with the LDI framework. When these basic psychological needs are satisfied, people experience positive psychological development and optimal psychological well-being—the stated outcome goals of most life skills programs. Without the development of a conceptual framework, it is difficult to determine whether individual life skills interventions achieve optimal psychological well-being. By developing this framework, we seek to identify and articulate the key underlying psychological mechanisms (i.e., basic needs of autonomy, competence, and relatedness) that contribute to optimal human functioning and positive psychosocial development in all life skill programs. The implications for counseling psychologists’ research and practice are also considered.
This article should have been designated as the "2008 Presidential Address."